1. Earthquake location http://www- rohan.sdsu.edu/~kbolsen/geol600_nhe_location_groundmotion.ppt

2. S-P times

4. Ts=D/Vs = D/Vp Ts-Tp = D/Vs - D/Vp = D ( Vp-Vs) / VsVp -> D = (Ts - Tp) * VpVs/(Vp - Vs)

5. S-P times: D(km) ~ 8 x S-P(s) S-P

6. X 8 x S-P 1 Using S-P times for fast earthquake location Intersection is the event location

7. Grid search method

8. Model vector: m=(T,x,y,z) t i p = F i (m) = predicted time r i = t i o - t i p = t i -F i (m) F i (m) nonlinear in (x,y,z) e.g. t i =[(x-x i ) 2 +(y-y i ) 2 ] 1/2 /v Earthquake location i

9.  = ∑ [t i -t i p ] 2 L2 norm (least squares) Earthquake location n I=1 Uncertainty? n I=1   

10. Other sources of error: Lateral velocity variations slow fast Station distribution

11. When no seismograms are available for location…

14. Ground motions, site effects, and earthquake engineering

15. Seismic sensor types - early editions Zhang Heng’s seismoscope ~ 132 AC A large bronze vessel, about 2 meters in diameter; at eight points around the top were dragon's heads holding bronze balls. When there was an earthquake, one of the mouths would open and drop its ball into a bronze toad at the base, making a sound and supposedly showing the direction of the earthquake.

16. Seismic sensor types: Modern instruments use electronics. In some systems, the mass is held nearly motionless relative to the frame by an electronic loop. The motion of the mass relative to the frame is measured, and the feedback loop applies a magnetic or electrostatic force to keep the mass nearly motionless. The voltage needed to produce this force is the output of the seismometer, which is recorded digitally. In other systems the mass is allowed to move, and its motion produces a voltage in a coil attached to the mass and moving through the magnetic field of a magnet attached to the frame. Professional seismic observatories usually have instruments measuring three axes: north-south, east-west, and up-down. If only one axis can be measured, this is usually the vertical because it is less noisy and gives better records of some seismic waves.

17. Seismic sensor types: Broadband: flat instrument response from 50 Hz- 30 seconds. Strong-motion: flat instrument response in acceleration and on scale recording up to 2 g

18. Instrument response Seismometers are usually designed to record signals over a specified range of frequencies (or periods) so it is convenient to discuss instruments based on the range of vibration frequencies that they can detect. Thus one way to characterize seismometers is to describe the range of vibration frequencies that they can detect. A plot of the amplification as a versus frequency is called an instrument response.

19. Wavelength and Period Wavelength = wave speed x period

20. Acceleration, Velocity and Displacement

21. ShakeMap: A representation of ground shaking produced by an earthquake, i.e., a range of ground shaking levels at sites throughout a region depending on distance from the earthquake, the rock and soil conditions at sites, and variations in the propagation of seismic waves from the earthquake due to complexities in the Earth’s crust.

22. USGS ShakeMap: Using a series of measures of the spatially variable shaking: Peak Ground Acceleration (PGA) Peak Ground Velocity (PGV) Spectral Acceleration at 0.3s, 1.0s, 3.0s Rapid Instrumental Intensity Map

23. Peak Ground Acceleration (PGA) Complicated pattern, extreme variability over a few km, due to small- scale geological differences near the sites that can change the high- frequency ground motion PGA represents low-moderate levels of damage

24. Peak Ground Velocity (PGV) Patterns of PGV represent faulting geometry, with the largest amplitudes in the near-source region and in the direction of rupture (directivity) Severe damage, and damage to flexible structures, is best related to PGV Largest PGV from M6.7 NR 183 cm/s

25. Spectral Acceleration @ 0.3s, 1s, 3s Peak response of a damped, single- degree-of-freedom oscillator to the recorded ground motion Useful to determine how a structure will react to ground motions

26. In gaps of seismic information, attenuation relations (ground motion prediction equations) are used Based on regression of many strong- motion records

27. SCSN = Southern California Seismic Network

28. Rapid Instrumental Intensity Map: Based on instrumental ground motion records Combined regression of PGAs and PGVs from data for 8 significant CA events: 1971 San Fernando, 1979 Imperial Valley, 1986 North Palm Springs, 1987 Whitties, 1989 Loma Prieta, 1991 Sierra Madra, 1992 Landers, 1994 Northridge

29. Rapid Instrumental Intensity Map: Regression for intensity > VII based on PGV Regression for intensity < VII based on PGA Consistent with: Low intensities determined by felt accounts Moderate damage (intensity VI-VII) typically in rigid structures (masonry walls, chimneys etc) sensitive to high-frequency ground motion (PGA) Strong damage (intensity > VII) damage also occurs in flexible structures, sensitive to PGV

30. USGS ShakeMap: Conveying rapid-response ground motion maps to a general audience, including scientists, businesses, emergency agencies, media, and the general public. A representation of ground shaking produced by an earthquake

31. 1994 M6.7 Northridge