2.  Modern Sociologists continue to be inspired by two important qualities stressed by early Sociologists: 1. The focus on the social 2. Skepticism

3.  Robert K. Merton’s contributions to Sociology:  Strain Theory  Manifest & Latent Functions  Dysfunctions

4.  Robert K. Merton was an American Sociologist.  He was said to have perfected the idea that sociology is a science.  He was heavily influenced by Talcott Parsons and elaborated on the Functionalist perspective.

5.  Robert Merton felt Durkheim’s anomie theory was too vague and decided to modify it.  He posited that anomie involves a disjunction between legitimate goals (which everyone desires) and socially approved means to success (which are not equally available to all).  Goals – car, house, vacation, good education  Means – work hard, study, save, sacrifice 5

6. 6 GOALS MEANS GOALS MEANS

7. 7 BEHAVIOURGOALSMEANS Conformity Innovation X RitualismX RetreatismXX Rebellionnew Merton’s Deviance Typology

8.  For Functionalists, like Merton, society was made up of several functions and different institutions and elements of the society had a variety of purposes or meanings.  For Functionalists, everything that existed had a reason for it to be there.  However, some of these functions were easy to see or obvious (manifest) whereas others were unintended or hidden (latent).

9. FUNCTIONNATURE MANIFESTINTENDED, OBVIOUS LATENTUNINTENDED, HIDDEN

10.  In each institution there are manifest (intended) and latent (hidden) functions.  Note that ALL functions are positive. INSTITUTIONMANIFEST FUNCTION LATENT FUNCTION FAMILYTo provide basic needs & wants To ensure mankind’s survival EDUCATIONTo pass on knowledge To provide meals or day care RELIGIONTo provide hope in times of need To keep their religion alive LEGAL SYSTEMTo protect the people and to serve justice To produce more knowledgeable criminals GOVERNMENTTo serve the peopleTo remain in power

11.  Latent & manifest functions are not found only in institutions, but in everyday activities. INSTITUTIONMANIFEST FUNCTION LATENT FUNCTION Valentines DayTo express love to that special someone To boost flowers sales Mother’s / Father’s Day To express gratitude to one’s parents To help greeting card companies boost sales during months when there may be nothing to celebrate Carrying a briefcaseTo carry one’s stuffTo indicate occupational status (non-manual labour)

12.  A dysfunction could be described as a malfunction or abnormal or impaired functioning (i.e. – it is not working as it should)  Dysfunctions can be manifest or latent.

13.  Manifest dysfunctions are anticipated disruptions of social life. For example, a manifest dysfunction of a Carnival fetes or concert might include disruptions of transportation and excessive production of garbage.  Latent dysfunctions are unintended and unanticipated disruptions of order and stability. In the same fete or concert example, they would be represented by people missing work due to the traffic jam.

14.  C. Wright Mills’ contribution to Sociology:  Sociological Imagination

15.  C. Wright Mills argued that sociologists see patterns and trends that escape the notice of other observers.  This goes against the individualism that we have been taught as a youth.  Sociologists posit that although individuals are unique, they are not isolated in this world and whatever they do have implications on the society around them and were influenced by the society around them.

16.  Therefore, for Mills, individuals become hardly noticeable in the whole scheme of things since they are treated as extensions of their family, religion, school, race, gender, culture and so on.  Even personal accomplishments are influenced by social factors.

17.  More generally, sociologists understand that individual make choices about how they will act, that they do have “free will,” but sociologists know that it is the social environment that makes some choices easier and others harder.  For Johnson (in McIntyre 2006, 30), an individualistic model is misleading because it encourages us to explain human behaviour and experience from a perspective that’s so narrow it misses most of what is going on.

18.  Mills coined the term “Sociological Imagination”  He argued that in order to explain social phenomena, individuals should apply a combination of personal as well as social & historical forces.  Mills purported that it is the ability “to think sociologically.”  McIntyre (2006, 265) defined it as “a kind of outlook on the world which allows one to look beyond the circumstances of the individual and see the effects of larger historical and social forces.”

19.  Mills postulated that people in our society often feel helpless and justly so.  He argues that when people are experiencing problems, they often blame individualistic reasons, but in reality these problems are generally as a result of social forces.  For example, a 15-year marriage that has gone sour.

20.  The Sociological Imagination could therefore help others to solve problems because people can now understand the source of their problems.

21. Example of Social Inequality (Racism):  Many people argue that racial discrimination is not merely a matter of individuals being nasty to one another.  Rather racism is as a result of factors built into social systems (institutional racism).  Individuals may be locked into a pattern of racism without even being aware of it or resisting it.  Examples: racist policies of an educational institute or bank.

22.  McIntyre, Lisa. 2006. The Practical Skeptic: Core Concepts in Sociology. 3 rd Ed. New York, NY: Mc Graw Hill. 22