1. Chapter Sixteen Equilibrium

2. Market Equilibrium  A market clears or is in equilibrium when the total quantity demanded by buyers exactly equals the total quantity supplied by sellers.

3. Market Equilibrium p D(p), S(p) q=D(p) Market demand Market supply q=S(p) p* q* D(p*) = S(p*); the market is in equilibrium.

4. Market Equilibrium p D(p), S(p) q=D(p) Market demand Market supply q=S(p) p* S(p’) D(p’) < S(p’); an excess of quantity supplied over quantity demanded. p’ D(p’) Market price must fall towards p*.

5. Market Equilibrium p D(p), S(p) q=D(p) Market demand Market supply q=S(p) p* D(p”) D(p”) > S(p”); an excess of quantity demanded over quantity supplied. p” S(p”) Market price must rise towards p*.

6. Market Equilibrium  An example of calculating a market equilibrium when the market demand and supply curves are linear.

7. Market Equilibrium p D(p), S(p) D(p) = a-bp Market demand Market supply S(p) = c+dp p* q* What are the values of p* and q*?

8. Market Equilibrium At the equilibrium price p*, D(p*) = S(p*). That is, which gives and

9. Market Equilibrium p D(p), S(p) D(p) = a-bp Market demand Market supply S(p) = c+dp

10. Market Equilibrium  Two special cases are when quantity supplied is fixed, independent of the market price, and when quantity supplied is extremely sensitive to the market price.

11. Market Equilibrium S(p) = c+dp, so d=0 and S(p)  c. p q p* D -1 (q) = (a-q)/b Market demand q* = c Market quantity supplied is fixed, independent of price.

12. Market Equilibrium S(p) = c+dp, so d=0 and S(p)  c. p q p* = (a-c)/b D -1 (q) = (a-q)/b Market demand q* = c p* = D -1 (q*); that is, p * = (a-c)/b. Market quantity supplied is fixed, independent of price.

13. Market Equilibrium  Two special cases are when quantity supplied is fixed, independent of the market price, and when quantity supplied is extremely sensitive to the market price.

14. Market Equilibrium Market quantity supplied is extremely sensitive to price. p q

15. Market Equilibrium Market quantity supplied is extremely sensitive to price. S -1 (q) = p*. p q p* D -1 (q) = (a-q)/b Market demand q* = a-bp* p* = D -1 (q*) = (a-q*)/b so q* = a-bp*

16. Quantity Taxes  A quantity tax levied at a rate of $t is a tax of $t paid on each unit traded.  If the tax is levied on sellers then it is called an excise tax.  If the tax is levied on buyers then it is called a sales tax.

17. Quantity Taxes  What is the effect of a quantity tax on a market’s equilibrium?  How are prices affected?  How is the quantity traded affected?  Who actually pays the tax?  How is the market’s ability to generate gains-to-trade altered?

18. Quantity Taxes  A tax makes the price paid by buyers, p b, different from the price received by sellers, p s.  In fact, the buyer and seller prices must differ by exactly the amount of the tax.

19. Quantity Taxes  Even with a tax present the market must still clear, so the quantity demanded by buyers facing the price p b and the quantity supplied by sellers facing the price p s must be equal.

20. Quantity Taxes and describe the market’s equilibrium. Notice that these two conditions apply no matter if the tax is levied on sellers or on buyers.

21. Quantity Taxes and describe the market’s equilibrium. Notice that these two conditions apply no matter if the tax is levied on sellers or on buyers. Hence, a sales tax levied at a rate of $t has exactly the same effect on a competitive market’s equilibrium as an excise tax levied at a rate of $t.

22. Quantity Taxes & Market Equilibrium p D(p), S(p) Market demand Market supply p* q* No tax

23. Quantity Taxes & Market Equilibrium p D(p), S(p) Market demand Market supply p* q* An excise tax raises the market supply curve by $t, raises the buyers’ price and lowers the quantity traded. $t pbpb qtqt And sellers receive only p s = p b - t. psps

24. Quantity Taxes & Market Equilibrium p D(p), S(p) Market demand Market supply p* q* No tax

25. Quantity Taxes & Market Equilibrium p D(p), S(p) Market demand Market supply p* q* An sales tax lowers the market demand curve by $t $t

26. Quantity Taxes & Market Equilibrium p D(p), S(p) Market demand Market supply p* q* An sales tax lowers the market demand curve by $t, lowers the sellers’ price and reduces the quantity traded. $t qtqt psps

27. Quantity Taxes & Market Equilibrium p D(p), S(p) Market demand Market supply p* q* An sales tax lowers the market demand curve by $t, lowers the sellers’ price and reduces the quantity traded. $t pbpb pbpb qtqt pbpb And buyers pay p b = p s + t. psps

28. Quantity Taxes & Market Equilibrium p D(p), S(p) Market demand Market supply p* q* A sales tax levied at rate $t has the same effects on the market’s equilibrium as does an excise tax levied at rate $t. $t pbpb pbpb qtqt pbpb psps

29. Quantity Taxes & Market Equilibrium  Who pays the tax of $t per unit traded?  The division of the $t between buyers and sellers is called the incidence of the tax.

30. Quantity Taxes & Market Equilibrium p D(p), S(p) Market demand Market supply p* q* pbpb pbpb qtqt pbpb psps Tax paid by buyers Tax paid by sellers

31. Quantity Taxes & Market Equilibrium  An example of computing the effects of a quantity tax on a market equilibrium.  Again suppose the market demand and supply curves are linear.

32. Quantity Taxes & Market Equilibrium and With the tax, the market equilibrium satisfies andso and Substituting for p b gives

33. Quantity Taxes & Market Equilibrium and give The quantity traded at equilibrium is

34. Quantity Taxes & Market Equilibrium The total tax paid (by buyers and sellers combined) is

35. Deadweight Loss and Own-Price Elasticities  A quantity tax imposed on a competitive market reduces the quantity traded at equilibrium and so reduces the gains-to-trade; i.e. the sum of Consumers’ Surplus and Producers’ Surplus is reduced.  The loss in total surplus is called the deadweight loss, or excess burden, of the tax.

36. Deadweight Loss and Own-Price Elasticities p D(p), S(p) Market demand Market supply p* q* No tax

37. Deadweight Loss and Own-Price Elasticities p D(p), S(p) Market demand Market supply p* q* No tax CS PS

38. Deadweight Loss and Own-Price Elasticities p D(p), S(p) Market demand Market supply p* q* $t pbpb qtqt psps CS PS The tax reduces both CS and PS

39. Deadweight Loss and Own-Price Elasticities p D(p), S(p) Market demand Market supply p* q* $t pbpb qtqt psps CS PS The tax reduces both CS and PS, transfers surplus to government, and lowers total surplus. Tax

40. Deadweight Loss and Own-Price Elasticities p D(p), S(p) Market demand Market supply p* q* $t pbpb qtqt psps CS PS Tax Deadweight loss

41. Deadweight Loss and Own-Price Elasticities p D(p), S(p) Market demand Market supply p* q* $t pbpb qtqt psps Deadweight loss falls as market demand becomes less own- price elastic.

42. Deadweight Loss and Own-Price Elasticities p D(p), S(p) Market demand Market supply p* q* $t pbpb qtqt psps Deadweight loss falls as market demand becomes less own- price elastic.

43. Deadweight Loss and Own-Price Elasticities p D(p), S(p) Market demand Market supply p s = p* $t pbpb q t = q* Deadweight loss falls as market demand becomes less own- price elastic. When  D = 0, the tax causes no deadweight loss.

44. Deadweight Loss and Own-Price Elasticities  Deadweight loss due to a quantity tax rises as either market demand or market supply becomes more own- price elastic.  If either  D = 0 or  S = 0 then the deadweight loss is zero.