1. Transoceanic Encounters and Global Connections
Chapter 22

2. The Exploration of the World’s Oceans
Age of Exploration (by Europeans)
Financed by governments and/or investors
 knowledge of the world  global network of communication, transportation, and exchange

3. Motives for Exploration
Combination: resources, land, trade routes, spread Christianity - justified and reinforced each other
Portuguese: resources and cultivable land (esp. for sugar plantations)
Trade routes: wealthy needed spices and gold, wanted direct access(bigger quantities,lower prices)
Missionary efforts: wanted
to expand Christendom

4. The Technology of Exploration
Combination of Mediterranean, N. European, Chinese, and Arabic elements
Ships and sails: rudder, triangular and square sails -> tacking
Navigational instruments: magnetic compass, astrolabe -> direction and latitude
Knowledge of winds and currents: trades and westerlies (in Atlantic and Pacific), monsoons (in Indian) – often required indirect routes (e.g., volto do mar)

6. Voyages of Exploration: from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic
Started in 13th century, 14th century explored E. Atlantic, by late 15th century into Indian Ocean
Prince Henry of Portugal, B. Dias, V. da Gama
Paved the way for est. of trading posts (Africa, India)
C. Columbus: sought western route to India, but ended up in the Bahamas
Unsuccessful, but inspired
others and linked the eastern
and western hemispheres

7. Voyages of Exploration: from the Atlantic to the Pacific
F. Magellan (Spain, circumnavigation)
Spain: est’d trade routes between Mexico and the Philippines
England: sought NW passage, Sir F. Drake explored Pacific, and J. Cook
France: joined in mid 1700s
Russians: land-based exploration by 1700s

8. Trade and Conflict in Early Modern Asia
Europeans wanted commercial opportunities
Built fortified trading posts to try to control trade (esp. in spices)
Led to competition among European countries, with Britain coming out on top

9. Trading Post Empires: Portuguese
Goal was not to conquer, but to control trade routes, forcing merchant ships to pay duties
Portuguese: used military force (A. d’Alboquerque) – seized Hormuz, Goa, Melaka; safe-conduct passes; couldn’t dominate, Port. Influence weakened by end of 16th century

10. Trading Post Empires: English & Dutch
English and Dutch: built trading posts, but didn’t try to control shipping
England: India
Holland: S. Africa and SE Asia
Advantages over Port.: better ships and joint-stock companies (limited risk, increased profits)
English East India Company and United East India Company (VOC): funded by private merchants, with government support (but no oversight)
Charters allowed them the right to buy, sell, build trading posts, make wars
Very successful  global trade network

11. European Conquests in SE Asia
Not very successful at conquering and controlling in East, except in Philippines and Indonesia
Philippines: 1565, Spanish overtook most of islands
Policy: trade (Manila became silk entrepot) and Christianity (tried to convert leaders, generally successful)
Indonesia: Dutch, focused on spice trade
Gained control via military power and manipulation of local politics, but did not rule directly

12. Foundations of the Russian Empire
Mid-16th century: conquers C. Asian Mongol Khanates -> trade with Ottomans, Iran, India
By 1639, expanded to Pacific Ocean (wanted Siberia for furs)
Russians tried to exact tribute from native groups, with varying responses (also spread disease)
To keep furs coming, tried to protect them and convert to orthodox Christianity (unsuccessful)
Russian settlers were misfits, criminals,
POWs – began building agricultural
settlements near trading posts

13. Commercial Rivalries and the Seven Years’ War
Competition and conflict:
Early: Dutch dom’d Indian Ocean
By early 1700s (cotton and tea), England and France dom’d (1746: French seized Madras)
Americas: English pirates and privateers seized Spanish ships, fighting over territory
 The Seven Years’ War ( ): global, involved natives

15. The Great War for Empire (cont.)
The war:
Europe: Britain and Prussia vs. France, Austria, and Russia
India: British vs. French (plus, each had local allies)
Caribbean: British vs. French and Spanish
North America (French and Indian Wars): British vs. French (plus, each had native allies)
British dom’d: kicked France out of India, took colonies (Canada and Florida) and laid foundation for British hegemony of the next 150 years

16. Ecological Exchanges
Beginning of unprecedented exchanges between cultures and regions of biological species (plants, crops, animals, human populations, and disease) with varying effects

17. The Columbian Exchange
Resulted in permanent changes to the world’s human geography and natural environment
Disease: decreased populations in Americas and Pacific Islands (esp. small pox, measles, diphtheria, whooping cough, and flu) because people had zero immunity -> epidemic (vs. endemic)
Food crops and animals: increased population, food supplies, nutrition, animal energy; flowed both ways
Migration: voluntary (European settlers, Asian workers) and forced (enslaved Africans)

19. The Origins of Global Trade
Started with Portuguese, Dutch, and English trading post empires (Asian goods to Europe)
Became truly global with Americas:
Americas to Europe: silver, tobacco, sugar
Africa to Americas: slaves
Europe to Africa: manufactured items
Also in Pacific basin: Manila galleons (American silver to Asia for luxury items)
Environmental impact: extinct animals