1. The History of the Universe
Universe cools down as time passes
Universe expands as time passes

2. The Early History of the Universe
Electron
Positron
Gamma-ray photon
Electrons, positrons, and gamma-rays in equilibrium between pair production and annihilation

3. For reasons not completely understood, there was a very slight excess of ordinary matter over antimatter (by about 1 part in 109). This is why there was still some ordinary matter left over when all the antimatter had been annihilated. (This must be the case, otherwise you wouldn't be here!) All of the protons, neutrons, and electrons in matter today were created in the first few seconds after the Big Bang.

4. The Early History of the Universe (2)
25% of mass in helium 75% in hydrogen
Protons and neutrons form a few helium nuclei; the rest of protons remain as hydrogen nuclei
No stable nuclei with 5 and 8 protons
 Almost no elements heavier than helium are produced.

5. Cosmic Abundance of Helium and Hydrogen
The Big Bang theory provides a natural way to explain the present abundance of the elements. At about 2 to 3 minutes after the Big Bang, the expanding universe had cooled to below about 109 K so that protons and neutrons could fuse to make stable deuterium nuclei (a hydrogen isotope with one proton and one neutron) that would not be torn apart by energetic photons. Protons react to produce deuterium, deuterium nuclei react to make Helium-3 nuclei, and Helium-3 nuclei react to make the stable Helium-4 nucleus.
The deuterium nucleus is the weak link of the chain process, so the fusion chain reactions could not take place until the universe had cooled enough. The exact temperature depends sensitively on the density of the protons and neutrons at that time. Extremely small amounts of Lithium-7 were also produced during the early universe nucleosynthesis process. After about 15 minutes from the Big Bang, the universe had expanded and cooled so much that fusion was no longer possible. The composition of the universe was 10% helium and 90% hydrogen (or if you use the proportions by mass, then the proportions are 25% helium and 75% hydrogen).
Except for the extremely small amounts of the Lithium-7 produced in the early universe, the elements heavier than helium were produced in the cores of stars.

6. Figure 15. 8: Cosmic element building
Figure 15.8: Cosmic element building. During the first few minutes of the big bang, temperatures and densities were high, and nuclear reactions built heavier elements. Because there are no stable nuclei with atomic weights of 5 or 8, the process built very few atoms heavier than helium.
Fig. 15-8, p.303

7. Figure 15.14: This graph plots the abundance of deuterium and lithium-7 versus the present density of the universe. Observations of the abundance of deuterium and lithium-7 are uncertain, but they limit the density of normal matter in the universe to a narrow range (green bar). The density of normal matter cannot be more than 5 percent of the critical density ρo.
Fig , p.311

8. The Nature of Dark Matter
Can dark matter be composed of normal matter?
If so, then its mass would mostly come from protons and neutrons = baryons
The density of baryons right after the big bang leaves a unique imprint in the abundances of deuterium and lithium.
Density of baryonic matter is only ~ 4 % of critical density.
Most dark matter must be non-baryonic!

9. The Early History of the Universe (3)
Photons have a blackbody spectrum at the same temperature as matter.
Photons are incessantly scattered by free electrons; photons are in equilibrium with matter
Radiation dominated era

10. Transition to matter dominated era
Recombination
Protons and electrons recombine to form atoms => universe becomes transparent for photons
z ≈1000
Transition to matter dominated era

11. The Cosmic Background Radiation (2)
After recombination, photons can travel freely through space.
Their wavelength is only stretched (red shifted) by cosmic expansion.
Recombination:
z = 1000; T = 3000 K
This is what we can observe today as the cosmic background radiation!

12. Formation of the first stars
Reionization
After less than ~ 1 billion years, the first stars form.
Ultraviolet radiation from the first stars re-ionizes gas in the early universe
Reionization
Formation of the first stars
 universe becomes opaque again

13. Large Scale Structure (2)
A large survey of distant galaxies shows the largest structures in the universe:
Filaments and walls of galaxy superclusters, and
voids, basically empty space.

14. Cosmology with the Cosmic Microwave Background
If the universe were perfectly homogeneous on all scales at the time of recombination (z = 1000), then the CMB should be perfectly isotropic over the sky.
Instead, it shows small-scale fluctuations:

15. Evidence for the formation of galaxies and large-scale structure
Fluctuations of the CMB temperature
The universe could not have been perfectly uniform, though. The universe must have been slightly lumpy to form galaxies later on from the internal gravity of the lumps. Initial density variations had to exist in order to provide some direction to where surrounding matter could be attracted. The COBE satellite found slight variations in the brightness of the background radiation of about 1 part in 100,000. The slight variations exist because some parts of the universe were slightly denser than other parts. The slightly denser regions had more gravity and attracted more material to them while the expansion occurred. Over time, the denser regions got even denser and eventually formed galaxies about 1 billion years after the Big Bang.

19. Observations are consistent with Hot Big Bang Model
The cosmic microwave background radiation can be explained only by the Big Bang theory. The background radiation is the relic of an early hot universe. The Big Bang theory's major competitor, called the Steady State theory, could not explain the background radiation, and so fell into disfavor.
The amount of activity (active galaxies, quasars, collisions) was greater in the past than now. This shows that the universe does evolve (change) with time. The Steady State theory says that the universe should remain the same with time, so once again, it does not work.
The number of quasars drops off for very large redshifts (redshifts greater than about 50% of the speed of light). The Hubble Law says that these are for large look-back times. This observation is taken to mean that the universe was not old enough to produce quasars at those large redshifts. The universe did have a beginning.
The abundance of hydrogen, helium, deuterium, lithium agrees with that predicted by the Big Bang theory. The abundances are checked from the spectra of the the oldest stars and gas clouds which are made from unprocessed, primitive material. They have the predicted relative abundances.

20. Depends on mass-energy density (Curvature of Space)
Fate of the Universe
Depends on mass-energy density (Curvature of Space)
The more mass there is, the more gravity there is to slow down the expansion. Is there enough gravity to halt the expansion and recollapse the universe or not? If there is enough matter (gravity) to recollapse the universe, the universe is ``closed''. In the examples of curved space above, a closed universe would be shaped like a four-dimensional sphere (finite, but unbounded). Space curves back on itself and time has a beginning and an end. If there is not enough matter, the universe will keep expanding forever. Such a universe is ``open''. In the examples of curved space, an open universe would be shaped like a four-dimensional saddle (infinite and unbounded). Space curves away from itself and time has no end.

21. Deceleration of the Universe
Expansion of the universe should be slowed down by mutual gravitational attraction of the galaxies.
Fate of the universe depends on the matter density in the universe.
Define “critical density”, rc, which is just enough to slow the cosmic expansion to a halt at infinity.

22. Model Universes
r < rc => universe will expand forever
Maximum age of the universe:
~ 1/H0
r = rc => Flat Universe
Size scale of the Universe
r > rc => Universe will collapse back
Time
If the density of matter equaled the critical density, then the curvature of space-time by the matter would be just sufficient to make the geometry of the universe flat!

23. Deriving geometry of the universe from density measurements

24. Orbital speeds of stars in galaxies

25. Faint gas shells around ellipticals
Ellipticals have faint gas shells that need massive ``dark'' haloes to contain them. The gas particles are moving too quickly (they are too hot) for the gravity of the visible matter to hang onto it.
Motion of galaxies in a cluster
Galaxy cluster members are moving too fast to be gravitationally bound unless there is unseen mass.
Hot gas in clusters
The existence of HOT (i.e., fast moving) gas in galaxy clusters. To keep the gas bound to the cluster, there needs to be extra unseen mass.
Quasar spectra
Absorption lines from hydrogen in quasar spectra tells us that there is a lot of material between us and the quasars.
Gravitational Lensing
Gravitational lensing of the light from distant galaxies and quasars by closer galaxies or galaxy clusters enables us to calculate the amount of mass in the closer galaxy or galaxy cluster from the amount of bending of the light. The derived mass is greater than the amount of mass in the visible matter.
Current tallies of the total mass of the universe (visible and dark matter) indicate that all matter constitutes only 27% of the critical density.

26. Deriving geometry of the universe from microwave background radiation

27. Deriving geometry of the universe from microwave background radiation

28. BOOMERANG Data

29. Figure 15.21: (c) The frequency with which different size irregularities occur in the BOOMERANG data has a large peak at about 1 degree, which fits an inflationary model of a flat universe. The height of the second peak fits models with about 4 percent baryonic matter. Nonbaryonic dark matter can’t be more than about 30 percent, so astronomers believe that dark energy makes up about 65 percent of the density needed to make the universe flat. The observations do not fit an open universe at all. (Courtesy of the BOOMERANG Collaboration)
Fig c, p.319

30. The case of a missing Universe
Observations suggest that the universe is flat:  = 1
Visible matter accounts for ~ 4% of the total mass-energy density: v = 0.04
Dark matter accounts for only 27% of the total mass-energy density: DM = 0.27
The rest 70% is something else!!

32. The accelerating Universe
redshift z
distance

37. Figure 15.17: (a) A type Ia supernova erupts in a very distant galaxy and begins to fade. By calibrating these supernovae, astronomers were able to find the distances to some of the farthest visible galaxies. (ESO)
Fig a, p.315

40. Supernovae are too faint
Figure 15.17: (b) Type Ia supernovae in distant galaxies are about 25 percent too faint, which must mean the galaxies are farther away from us than they would be in a universe expanding at a constant rate. This diagram shows observations of supernovae compared with a decelerating flat universe dominated by dark matter (blue line). The red line shows the relationship for an accelerating flat universe.
Fig b, p.315

45. Einstein’s equations:
Equation of state: relation between pressure P and energy density c2
 = 0 for dust (no pressure)
 = 1/3 for radiation (very hard pressure)
Or: acceleration =
To have acceleration,
we must have negative pressure!
 = -1 ??

47. Accelerating now, but decelerating in the past?!

49. Figure 15.18: In a 1997 follow-up image of the Hubble Deep Field made in 1995, astronomers noticed a faint galaxy that was brighter in the second image (lower left). Subtracting the earlier image from the later image revealed a supernova cataloged as SN1997ff (lower right). The unexpected faintness of the supernova confirms that the universe is accelerating. (Adam Riess, STScI/NASA)
Fig , p.316

52. Problems with standard model. Inflation
Flatness problem
Horizon problem
Initial fluctuations
Absence of magnetic monopoles
“Fine tuning”

57. Solution of the Problems of the Big Bang by Inflation
If this inflationary epoch really took place, it could cure all the problems of the big bang:
The tremendous expansion means that regions that we see widely separated in the sky now at the horizon were much closer together before inflation and thus could have been in contact by light signals.
The tremendous expansion greatly dilutes any initial curvature. In fact, the inflationary theory predicts unequivocally that the Universe should globally be exactly flat, and therefore that the average density of the Universe should be exactly equal to the closure density.
The rapid expansion of the Universe tremendously dilutes the concentration of any magnetic monopoles that are produced. Simple calculations indicate that they become so rare in any given volume of space that we would be very unlikely to ever encounter one in an experiment designed to search for them.
Density Fluctuations as Seeds for Galaxy Formation
Detailed considerations indicate that inflation is capable of producing small density fluctuations that can later in the history of the Universe provide the seeds to cause matter to begin to clump together to form the galaxies and other observed structure.

58. What could be the reason for inflation?
Figure 15.16: When the universe was very young and hot (top), the four forces of nature were indistinguishable. As the universe began to expand and cool, the forces separated and triggered a sudden inflation in the size of the universe.
Fig , p.313