1. Jihad in the Qu’ran and Sunnah Muhammad leading battle against opposing armies Muslims preparing for battle in the Battle of Badr (624)

2. Jihad in the Qu’ran Status of the Qu’ran Editions of the Qu’ran under Uthman (644-656) 41 occurrences of the JHD root, 10 referring to the conduct of war Asbab al-Nuzul Al Nasikh Wal Mansukh

3. Traditional Reading and its Limits The Fiqh on war was built on contradictory verses in the Qu’ran. d.) Unconditional Command to Fight All Unbelievers Sura 9:5 refers to fighting the idolaters: ‘When the sacred months are past, kill the idolaters wherever you find them, and seize them, besiege them and lie in wait for them in every place of ambush: but if they repent, pray regularly and give the alms tax, then let them go their way, for God is forgiving, merciful” c.) Initiating Attack Sura: 2:217 They will ask you about fighting in the sacred month (al shahr al Haram). Say: fighting therein is a grave offense but driving people away from the path of God, unbelief in Him and expelling His people from the Sacred Mosque is far more grave in God’ sight. Fitna is worse than killing. They will not stop fighting you until you turn away from your religion, if they can. Those of you who are turned away from your religion and die as unbelievers, your acts will come to nothing in this world and in the world to come, You will be companion of the Fire and remain there forever. Sura 2:191: “Kill them wherever you find them and turn them out from where they have turned you out, for fitna is worse than killing but do not fight them at the Sacred Mosque unless they fight you there. But if they fight you, kill them. Such is the reward of the unbelievers.” b.) Defensive Fighting Sura 22:39: “Permission is Given to those who fight because they have been wronged: God is most powerful for their aid - those who have been unjustly expelled from their homes only because they say “Our Lord is God”. a.) Non-Confrontation Sura (16:25): “Invite All to the way of your Lord with wisdom and beautiful preaching and argue with them in ways that are best and most gracious: for your Lord knows best who has strayed from his path, and who receives guidance” Status of verse 2:190 :” Fight in the path of God those who fight you, but do not transgress limits, for God does not love transgressors’.

4. The Synchronic Reading 4.) Verses strongly advocating war Considered as abrogating verses. Who is the Enemy? Idolaters. Unqualified war against the idolaters until they are killed or become Muslims. Unqualified war against the Ahl Al Kitab until they acknowledge hegemony of Islam and pay the Poll Tax (ahl al jizya). 3.) Conflict between God’s command and the response of the people lack of consensus in the community 2.) Restrictions on Fighting: Sura 2:190: Defensive fighting Critique of kinship bond over Islamic bond 1.) The Non-Militant Verses: 8 : half of them appear in the Meccan context; the other half refer to the People of the Book. Sura 6:106 (in contradiction with 9:5) Sura 15:94

5. Other Holistic Approaches 1.) Modern: Dr Amir Ali (1937-2005) -12 senses of Jihad which are to be found in the Qu’ran and Hadith. - Second objection: the revelation by substitution cannot be verified. Fathi Osman 3.) Fathi Osman (1928-) - Structuralist Approach: The Beggar and the Warrior 2.) Modern views: Muhammad Al Ghazali (1917-1996) - Islam is a religion of tolerance - Comment of Q.2:216: Booney pp.29-30 Muhammad Al Ghazali

6. Jihad in the Sunnah What is Sunnah? - Example of the Prophet - Hadith: deeds and words of the Prophet - Classified in topics - Al Bukhari (d.869) compilation has 93 chapters.: revelation/faith/prayer/charity/pilgrimage/fasting/general interactions between people/marriage/divorce/medicine/good manners/dream/apostasy - Isnad transmission (chain of authorities) Forgery of Hadith and its consequences for Jihad (Goldziher), especially on the distinction between smaller and greater Jihad: already Ibn Taymiyya refuted this distinction as based on weak Hadith. - The story of the 72 black-eyed virgins: forgery? Martyrdom and Jihad Great Merit is ascribed to fighting in the path of God

7. The Sira Before Hijra The Institution of the Umma The Medina Agreement Abu Bakr (second from left) and his advisers