1. Escape, Engagement and Ethics The Human Face of Brain Drain from the Student-Turned- Migrant Perspective Shanthi Robertson

2. RMIT University2 Education & migration in the knowledge economy  Higher education increasingly seen as “one of the principal conduits of permanent emigration” (Saravia and Miranda 2004:609).  Students are “the semi-finished human capital” (Khadria 2001:45)  Students move from the developing to the developed world  many do not return  contribution to ‘brain drain’

3. RMIT University3 The Australian Context  Low birth rate + skilled labour shortages  Recent paradigm shifts: From education as aid to education as trade From education as aid to education as trade Migration as ‘picking winners’ (Hawthorne 2005) i.e. needs-based focus on skills Migration as ‘picking winners’ (Hawthorne 2005) i.e. needs-based focus on skills  International students now favoured in policy, targeted as an accessible pool of potential migrants

4. RMIT University4 Key Questions  Why do international students from developing countries decide to stay in Australia at the completion of their degrees, rather than returning home?  To what extent do students who do stay remain financially, politically or socially engaged with their countries of origin?

5. RMIT University5 Research Perspective  Ethnographic sociology: in-depth examination of individual lives  Through the perspectives & words of the participants (micro-level)  Migrants as humans rather than ‘human capital’  Decision-making beyond economic ‘push/pull’ factors  complex intersections of obligation, identity, belonging, lifestyle, values and politics

6. RMIT University6 The complexity of decision-making

7. RMIT University7 Key theme: Mobility over permanence “I believe that if people are capable and willing and intelligent and responsible, they should be allowed to move from country to country more freely at least than what they are allowed to nowadays. […] Freedom of movement should also be contested, like freedom of thought and freedom of speech.” (Rafael, Venezuela)

8. RMIT University8 Key theme: Mobility over permanence  Permanent residency as capital building: a means of gaining security a means of gaining security an option for future mobility an option for future mobility a way to gain meaningful work experience in the developed world a way to gain meaningful work experience in the developed world not always a signifier of permanent settlement not always a signifier of permanent settlement

9. RMIT University9 Key theme: Lifestyle over salary “It's too stressful. It's like if you want to go in business it's like you need to know a lot of politicians, police, liars, any trouble. […] Everywhere. Even you need to get a passport you need to bribe. […] I just hate those things. Really, I hate those things.” (Devendra, India)

10. RMIT University10 Key theme: Lifestyle over salary  Economic factors are more complex than simply better pay and more opportunity: escaping crime and corruption escaping crime and corruption better infrastructure and urban environment better infrastructure and urban environment relative earnings often less in Australia, but lifestyle factors compensated relative earnings often less in Australia, but lifestyle factors compensated willing to take lower pay and status positions for the benefit of ‘international experience’ willing to take lower pay and status positions for the benefit of ‘international experience’

11. RMIT University11 Key theme: Continuing engagement “It's easy to say, very easy to say, like ah yes I love my country, so what are you doing here? So in my situation right now I sort of prepare myself, you know, completing all the skills and really - the English, the culture, the experience and when I'm sort of ready I could, you know, do whatever I want and probably at the time have two citizenships and try to bring the two cultures together.” (Miguel, Colombia)

12. RMIT University12 Key theme: Continuing engagement  Commitment to continuing to contribute to development in various ways: Traditional contributions of remittances and investment Traditional contributions of remittances and investment Time in Australia as preparation for a transnational life/career that encompasses both nations Time in Australia as preparation for a transnational life/career that encompasses both nations Role an cultural ambassadors Role an cultural ambassadors Intention to ultimately return Intention to ultimately return

13. RMIT University13 Conclusions  Simplistic economic push-pull factors do not provide the full picture of migrant decision-making.  Complex and intersecting considerations of duty, responsibility, identity, lifestyle and belonging are paramount. As such, direct economic or professional incentives provided by industry or governments would not necessarily be effective in tempting all migrants to return.  Diasporic engagement can be more complex and difficult to measure than straightforward investment, taxes, remittances or political participation.  There is hope in encouraging skilled migrants to maintain critically and transnationally engaged through education and transnational community building.  Greater co-operation between governments and more flexibility and education on issues of flexible citizenship, professional mobility, funded scholarships and greater visa options will help to facilitate this.