1. 1 How to Rent a Car (and Why you Can’t Rent a Person): The Ontology of Production and Consumption Barry Smith http://ontologist.com

2. 2 Nouns and verbs Substances and processes Endurants and perdurents In preparing an inventory of reality we keep track of these two different categories of entities in two different ways

3. 3 Snapshot vs. Video substance t i m e process

4. 4 SNAP vs SPAN substance t i m e process

5. 5 SNAP and SPAN SNAP entities - have continuous existence in time - preserve their identity through change - exist in toto if they exist at all SPAN entities - have temporal parts - unfold themselves phase by phase - exist only in their phases/stages

6. 6 SNAP vs. SPAN 1.SNAP: a SNAPshot ontology of endurants existing at a time 2.SPAN: a four-dimensionalist ontology of processes

7. 7 SNAP vs. SPAN Substances vs. their lives

8. 8 You are a substance Your life is a process You are 3-dimensional Your life is 4-dimensional

9. 9 Three kinds of SNAP entities 1.Substances 2.States, Powers, Qualities, Roles... = SPQR entities 1.Spatial Regions, Contexts, Niches

10. 10 SPQR … entities States, powers, qualities, roles … functions, dispositions, plans, shapes, liabilities … = dependent SNAP entities

11. 11 SPQR … entities: one-place: your temperature, color, height my knowledge of French the whiteness of this cheese the warmth of this stone the fragility of this glass

12. 12 relational SPQR … entities John Mary love stand in relations of one-sided dependence to a plurality of substances simultaneously specific dependence

13. 13 Two kinds of SPAN entities 1.Processes, Events, Actions 2.Spatio-temporal regions, Behavior Settings, Spatio- temporal niches

14. 14 Substances Mesoscopic reality is divided at its natural joints into substances: animals, bones, rocks, potatoes

15. 15 Processes Processes merge into one another Process kinds merge into one another … few clean joints either between instances or between types

16. 16 Processes t i m e

17. 17 Processes have temporal parts The first 5 minutes of my headache is a temporal part of my headache The first game of the match is a temporal part of the whole match

18. 18 SNAP entities do not have temporal parts The first 5-minute phase of my existence is not a temporal part of me It is a temporal part of that complex process which is my life

19. 19 here time exists as part of the domain of the ontology The SPAN Ontology

20. 20 The SNAP Ontologies t1t1 t3t3 t2t2 here time exists outside the ontology, as an index or time-stamp

21. 21

22. 22 each section through reality includes everything which exists at the corresponding now

23. 23 SNAP: Entities existing in toto at a time

24. 24

25. 25

26. 26 SNAP

27. 27 SPAN: Entities extended in time

28. 28 SPAN: Entities extended in time

29. 29 SPAN: Entities extended in time Settings, environments, niches

30. 30 Need for different perspectives Not one ontology, but a multiplicity of complementary ontologies Cf. anatomy vs. physiology in medicine Cf. particle vs. wave ontologies in quantum mechanics

31. 31 Two Orthogonal and Complementary Perspectives SNAP and SPAN

32. 32 SNAP  SPAN Substance  Process PARTICIPATION (a species of dependence)

33. 33 SNAP-SPAN Participation Perpetration (+agentive) Initiation Perpetuation Termination Influence Facilitation Hindrance Mediation Patiency (-agentive)

34. 34 Perpetration A substance perpetrates an action (direct and agentive participation in a process): The referee fires the starting-pistol The captain gives the order

35. 35 Initiation A substance initiates a process: The referee starts the race

36. 36 Perpetuation A substance sustains a process: The singer sings the song The division holds the enemy at bay

37. 37 Termination A substance terminates a process: The judge terminates the imprisonment of the pardoned convict

38. 38 Realization (SNAP-SPAN) the execution of a plan, algorithm the expression of a function the exercise of a role the realization of a disposition

39. 39 SPQR… entities and their SPAN realizations plan function role disposition algorithm SNAP

40. 40 SPQR… entities and their SPAN realizations execution expression exercise realization application course SPAN

41. 41 Material examples: performance of a symphony projection of a film expression of an emotion utterance of a sentence application of a therapy course of a disease increase of temperature

42. 42 SNAP and SPAN in the Ontology of Production and Consumption stocks and flows products and processes commodities and services

43. 43 National Income Statistics sub-categorized according to whether provided by Government, Private Enterprise, Charities, etc. Commodities (Manufacturing) Services Other

44. 44 APPLICATION The Ontology of National Income Statistics (with thanks to Wolfgang Grassl): from the Producer’s Perspective from the Government’s Perspective from the Consumer’s Perspective from a Neutral, Ontological Perspective

45. 45 What is a commodity? A SNAP entity An apple A book A car An overhead projector

46. 46 What is a service? A SPAN entity a movement (cutting of hair) an installation a repair an act of programming an act of singing an act of lecturing

47. 47 What are you paying for when you buy a railway ticket? A commodity? A service? Something else? (A license/permission)  ontology of records and representations

48. 48 Music What is the CD, which you buy in a shop?

49. 49 Is it a commodity? Or is it a service? Producer’s perspective Government’s perspective Consumer’s perspective

50. 50 US Government treat music CDs as belonging to the service industry of music [music a Fine Art; much finer than mere manufacturing] thus CD sales are reckoned on the service side of National Income Statistics (product of producers’ lobbying)

51. 51 Confusion “Services industries are areas of high economic growth in modern economies” Service industries include manufacture of CDs, CD-Roms, shrink-wrapped software …

52. 52  Two kinds of services Embodied = tied directly to specific human actions Disembodied/Splintered = floating free from the human actions which initiated them

53. 53 Embodied Services haircuttingLPs, CDs consultingbooks, newspapers nursingpaintings prostitutionadvertising teachingtelevision, telephone transportsoftware on the net

54. 54 Disembodied/Splintered Services haircuttingLPs, CDs consultingbooks, newspapers nursingpaintings prostitutionadvertising teachingtelevision, telephone transportsoftware on the net

55. 55 Embodied and Splintered Services EmbodiedDisembodied/Splintered haircuttingLPs, CDs consultingbooks, newspapers nursingpaintings prostitutionadvertising teachingtelevision, telephone transportsoftware on the net

56. 56 A Better Definition Service = an economic good for which production and consumption spatiotemporally coincide (hairdressing)  Since all consumption is SPAN, all services (= all token deliveries of services) are SPAN entities, too

57. 57 Service = an economic good for which production and consumption spatiotemporally coincide … but

58. 58 but surely coincidence can be shifted in time there is live television (services) but there is taped television But note: the tapes, videos, DVDs are then commodities (SNAP) Services are in every case time-perishable

59. 59 ‘Splintered’ (‘disembodied’) services (CDs, books …) are wrongly classified they are not services at all because, their production and consumption do not coincide

60. 60 Embodied and Splintered Services EmbodiedDisembodied/Splintered haircuttingLPs, CDs consultingbooks, newspapers nursingpaintings prostitutionadvertising = advertisements teachingtelevision, telephone transportsoftware on the net

61. 61 Two Kinds of Commodities consumable (bananas) and non-consumable (roads, telephone lines) SNAP The latter afford services SPAN as an ocean affords swimming

62. 62 When you sign a contract with the telephone country you are renting the whole telephone net (whether this is made of wires or radio- transmitters) what you rent is a SNAP entity therefore: IT IS NOT A SERVICE as contrasted with telephone sex

63. 63 Strict, independent services Dependent Services (Meta-services) Selling manufactured goods Renting manufactured goods haircuttingadvertisingLPs, CDscar rental consultingselling, transport books, newspapers tele- communications nursinginput service (typing) paintingroad networks wired networks prostitutionadvertising teaching live television and theatre performances television and theatre technical services software on the net

64. 64 Television and telecommunications are similar ontologically: each has two components: the network and the utilization of the network = continuants plus occurrents SNAP plus SPAN

65. 65 From the consumer’s perspective however television is a service industry: we watch television in order to enjoy the services of the actors Here the network and delivery mechanism are secondary. Not so for telephone ‘service’: We want to use the actual physical mechanical network object Telecommunications is NOT A SERVICE INDUSTRY

66. 66 Telecommunications is an industry analogous to car rental When we rent a car we rent the whole car (not a temporal part of the car, since cars are SNAP entities and do not have temporal parts) When we sign a contract with a telephone company we rent the whole network …

67. 67 The Ontology of Renting

68. 68 Car rental is like home rental it is the purchase of a SNAP entity for a certain time

69. 69 Phone sex, like other stuff which comes down the phone line for payment, is a service. But the telecommunication system itself is a commodity, which we rent Proof: You still pay for your telephone connection when no one is using the line. You still pay for your rental car when you are not driving it

70. 70 It is a necessary feature of renting that the object you rent can in principle exist before and after the period of your rental contract  what you rent must be a SNAP entity You can’t rent a service: this is ontologically incoherent

71. 71 The category of services – where production and consumption coincide both spatially and temporally – is characterized by the fact that rental is impossible. Services can only be purchased outright.

72. 72 Dependent services (meta-services) What of: Sales and marketing? Transport and shipping services (taxi services)? Insurance services ? Protection services?

73. 73 An adequate ontology of marketing must include three categories: Things (commodities) Processes (production, consumption, sale): of services of commodities Settings (environments, niches, contexts): for production, consumption and sale

74. 74 Settings the ensemble of environmental features within which a purchase is made (environmental features which are relevant to the purchase). WHEN BUYING A CAR WHEN BUYING A HAIRCUT

75. 75 The value of a commodity is dependent upon the setting in which it exists at the moment of purchase (luxurious BMW car showroom) The value of a service is dependent upon the setting in which it exists at the moment of delivery (luxurious hairdressing salon)

76. 76 Settings When you buy a service you also buy a delivery setting. And the delivery setting has the same temporal extent as the service itself. (Hairdressers) The delivery setting for commodities is transient. They bring you the car and leave.

77. 77 More on the ontology of services The service is the action, not the result It is the haircutting, not the resulting pattern in the hair on your head

78. 78 Ontological categories we need: 1.Independent SNAP entities 1a. Persons 1b. Material things 1c. Stuffs

79. 79 2. Dependent SNAP entities 2. SPQR (may be the outcomes of processes, or realized in, processes) 2a. Mental states (happiness) 2b. Physical states of persons (health, beauty) 2c. Physical states of material things (plumbing system) 2d. Dispositions, powers

80. 80 3. SPAN entities 3a. Willed processes (processes produced on demand) (i) Actions (ii) Processes in material things produced on demand (explosions, movements of dentists‘ drills) 3b. Natural processes (a tree growing) 3c. Mental processes

81. 81 Settings (more SNAP entities) 4a. Of purchase 4b. Of delivery (for commodities) 4c. Of use (for commodities) 4d. Of delivery (for services)

82. 82 A CD is a commodity because one can either buy it or rent it.

83. 83 Definition of renting x rents y to z : x owns y and x allows z to use y for a limited time in exchange for recompense proportionate to the length of time involved. (There is an assumption that y will be available for multiple time periods.) (Sub-letting as an iteration thereof)

84. 84 Theorem: There is nothing which can only be rented Proof: From the definition of renting

85. 85 You cannot rent people What is involved in employing people? Do you buy their labour or do you rent their labour. Marx: the commonsensical view according to which we can rent or hire bodyguards is mistaken. We do not rent bodyguards; we buy the services of bodyguards for given time periods.

86. 86 Counter-argument Surely you can rent a bodyguard, because the bodyguard exists for a longer period of time than the time in which you rent him. No: you buy the services of the bodyguard

87. 87 An Ontology of Prostitution and Slavery A1 x is a commodity iff x is necessarily of such a sort that it can either be bought or rented. A2 x is a service  x is necessarily of such a sort that it can only be bought.

88. 88 An Ontology of Prostitution and Slavery A4 Anything which can be rented can also be bought A5 In legal systems like ours people cannot be bought A6 People cannot be rented.