1. APOLLO: Next-Generation Lunar Laser Ranging Tom Murphy UCSD Tom Murphy UCSD

2. The APOLLO Collaboration UCSD: Tom Murphy (PI) Eric Michelsen Adam Orin Eric Williams Philippe LeBlanc Evan Million U Washington: Eric Adelberger C. D. Hoyle Erik Swanson Harvard: Chris Stubbs James Battat JPL: Jim Williams Slava Turyshev Dale Boggs Jean Dickey Lincoln Lab: Brian Aull Bob Reich Northwest Analysis: Ken Nordtvedt Close Associates Funding: initially NASA Code U now split: 60% Code S 40% NSF grav. phys.

3. A Modern, Post-Newtonian View The Post-Newtonian Parameterization (PPN) describes deviations from GR The main parameters are  and   tells us how much spacetime curvature is produced per unit mass  tells us how nonlinear gravity is (self-interaction)  and  are identically 1.00 in GR Current limits have: (  –1) < 2.5  10 -5 (Cassini) (  –1) < 1.1  10 -4 (LLR) The Post-Newtonian Parameterization (PPN) describes deviations from GR The main parameters are  and   tells us how much spacetime curvature is produced per unit mass  tells us how nonlinear gravity is (self-interaction)  and  are identically 1.00 in GR Current limits have: (  –1) < 2.5  10 -5 (Cassini) (  –1) < 1.1  10 -4 (LLR)

4. Relativistic Observables in the Lunar Range Lunar Laser Ranging provides a comprehensive probe of gravity, boasting the best tests of: Weak Equivalence Principle:  a/a  10 -13 Strong Equivalence Principle: |  | ≤ 4  10 -4 time-rate-of-change of G: ≤ 10 -12 per year geodetic precession: 0.35% 1/r 2 force law: 10 -10 times force of gravity gravitomagnetism (frame-dragging): 0.1% Equivalence Principle (EP) Violation Happens if gravitational mass and inertial mass are not equal Earth and Moon would fall at different rates toward the sun Would appear as a polarization of the lunar orbit Range signal has form of cosD (D is lunar phase angle) Lunar Laser Ranging provides a comprehensive probe of gravity, boasting the best tests of: Weak Equivalence Principle:  a/a  10 -13 Strong Equivalence Principle: |  | ≤ 4  10 -4 time-rate-of-change of G: ≤ 10 -12 per year geodetic precession: 0.35% 1/r 2 force law: 10 -10 times force of gravity gravitomagnetism (frame-dragging): 0.1% Equivalence Principle (EP) Violation Happens if gravitational mass and inertial mass are not equal Earth and Moon would fall at different rates toward the sun Would appear as a polarization of the lunar orbit Range signal has form of cosD (D is lunar phase angle)

5. Equivalence Principle Signal If, for example, Earth has greater inertial mass than gravitational mass (while the moon does not): Earth is sluggish to move Alternatively, pulled weakly by gravity Takes orbit of larger radius (than does Moon) Appears that Moon’s orbit is shifted toward sun: cosD signal Sun Nominal orbit: Moon follows this, on average Sluggish orbit

6. LLR through the decades Previously 100 meters APOLLO

7. APOLLO: the next big thing in LLR APOLLO offers order-of-magnitude improvements to LLR by: Using a 3.5 meter telescope Gathering multiple photons/shot Operating at 20 pulses/sec Using advanced detector technology Achieving millimeter range precision Tightly integrating experiment and analysis Having the best acronym

9. Lunar Retroreflector Arrays Corner cubes Apollo 14 retroreflector array Apollo 11 retroreflector array Apollo 15 retroreflector array

10. APOLLO’s Secret Weapon: Aperture The Apache Point Observatory’s 3.5 meter telescope Southern NM (Sunspot) 9,200 ft (2800 m) elevation Great “seeing”: 1 arcsec Flexibly scheduled, high-class research telescope 7-university consortium (UW, U Chicago, Princeton, Johns Hopkins, Colorado, NMSU, U Virginia)

11. APOLLO Laser Nd:YAG mode-locked, cavity- dumped Frequency-doubled to 532 nm (green) 90 ps pulse width (FWHM) 115 mJ per pulse 20 Hz repetition rate 2.3 Watt average power GW peak power!! Beam is expanded to 3.5 meter aperture Less of an eye hazard Less damaging to optics

12. Catching All the Photons Several photons per pulse necessitates multiple “buckets” to time-tag each Avalanche Photodiodes (APDs) respond only to first photon Lincoln Lab prototype APD arrays are perfect for APOLLO 4  4 array of 30  m elements on 100  m centers Lenslet array in front recovers full fill factor Resultant field is 1.4 arcsec on a side Focused image is formed at lenslet 2-D tracking capability facilitates optimal efficiency

13. Laser Mounted on Telescope

14. First Light: July 24, 2005

16. Blasting the Moon

17. APOLLO Random Error Budget Error SourceTime Uncert. (ps) (round trip) Range error (mm) (one way) Retro Array Orient.100–30015–45 APD Illumination609 APD Intrinsic<50< 7 Laser Pulse Width456.5 Timing Electronics203 GPS-slaved Clock71 Total Random Uncert136–31420–47

18. Example Data From Recent Run Randomly-timed background photons (bright moon) Return photons from reflector width is < 1 foot 2150 photons in 14,000 shots

19. APOLLO Superlatives More lunar return photons in 10 minutes than the McDonald station gets in three years best single run: >2500 photons in 10,000 shots (8 minutes) Peak rates of >0.6 photons per shot (12 per second) compare to typical 1/500 for McDonald, 1/100 for France Range with ease at full moon APOLLO’s very first returns were at full moon other stations can’t fight the high background As many as 8 photons detected in a single pulse! APD array is essential Centimeter precision straight away Millimeter-capable beginning April 2006 More lunar return photons in 10 minutes than the McDonald station gets in three years best single run: >2500 photons in 10,000 shots (8 minutes) Peak rates of >0.6 photons per shot (12 per second) compare to typical 1/500 for McDonald, 1/100 for France Range with ease at full moon APOLLO’s very first returns were at full moon other stations can’t fight the high background As many as 8 photons detected in a single pulse! APD array is essential Centimeter precision straight away Millimeter-capable beginning April 2006

20. Future Directions LLR tests gravity on our doorstep Although additional “doorstep” opportunities via lunar landing missions sparse arrays, transponders There’s also a back yard: the solar system Interplanetary laser ranging offers another order-of-magnitude Measure  via Shapiro delay Measure strong equivalence principle as Sun falls toward Jupiter Multi-task laser altimeters as asynchronous transponders incredible demonstration to MESSENGER: 24 million km 2-way link Piggyback on optical communications/navigation Other methods for probing local spacetime Weak equivalence principle tests Solar-induced curvature via interferometric angular measurements Clocks in space to test Lorentz invariance/SME LLR tests gravity on our doorstep Although additional “doorstep” opportunities via lunar landing missions sparse arrays, transponders There’s also a back yard: the solar system Interplanetary laser ranging offers another order-of-magnitude Measure  via Shapiro delay Measure strong equivalence principle as Sun falls toward Jupiter Multi-task laser altimeters as asynchronous transponders incredible demonstration to MESSENGER: 24 million km 2-way link Piggyback on optical communications/navigation Other methods for probing local spacetime Weak equivalence principle tests Solar-induced curvature via interferometric angular measurements Clocks in space to test Lorentz invariance/SME