1. Phil James Liverpool John Moores University Astrophysics Research Institute 22nd August 2007 STFC PhD Summer School, Durham The Structure of Galaxies

2. Talk overview Look at the diversity of galaxy Structures seen in the local Universe Link structural properties with Content of galaxies (gas, stars, dust, dark matter, black holes) and Processes connecting these Identify open questions; galaxies are far from being fully understood

3. I’m not going to mention this… Diagram courtesy Space Telescope Science Institute

4. …but we need to understand this Baldry et al. 2004 66846 SDSS galaxies 0.004<z<0.080

5. Red and blue sequence galaxies in the Virgo Cluster Image: CFHT

6. STRUCTURES: Field galaxies Image: A. Block

7. Structures: Disks NGC 2683 Image: D. Matthews & A. Block

8. Structures: Disks and Bulges NGC 4565 Image: Hugo, Gaul & Black (KPNO)

9. Structures: Disks and Bulges M 104 Image: HST

10. Structures: Bars

11. STRUCTURES: Elliptical galaxy

12. Galaxy Contents Gas (atomic and molecular) Stars Dust Black holes Dark matter

13. Gas in galaxies This is a ‘dissipative’ component – if 2 gas clouds collide, they can shock and radiate energy, so collisions are highly inelastic If there is any initial angular momentum, this naturally leads to the formation of a disk:

14. Superthin galaxies These galaxies have little or no bulge: pure disk systems.

15. Gas in galaxies This is a ‘dissipative’ component – if 2 gas clouds collide, they can shock and radiate energy, so collisions are highly inelastic If there is any initial angular momentum, this naturally leads to the formation of a disk The gaseous disk then forms stars, once gas density is sufficiently large

16. Measuring star formation Hα from gas ionized by hot young stars:

17. Red light spectrum of a galaxy

23. Measuring star formation Hα from gas ionized by hot young stars Mid/Far-infrared emission from hot dust around star formation regions (IRAS, Spitzer)

24. NGC 1410 Image Bill Keel Dust in galaxies

25. Spitzer IR Space Telescope

26. M81 observed by Spitzer

27. Measuring star formation Hα from gas ionized by hot young stars Mid/Far-infrared emission from hot dust around star formation regions (IRAS, Spitzer) UV emission from young stars (GALEX) Radio emission from star formation regions, or from supernova remnants

28. Star Formation (‘Schmidt-Kennicutt’) Law – SFR α (Gas density) 1.4 Kennicutt 1998 ←Starburst nuclei ←Normal disks

29. Conversion of gas to stars Star formation law works well, with wide applicability (normal galaxies and starbursts) It is largely empirical, however – no physical basis for power law index Does it apply to star formation in densest regions (globular clusters and nuclear clusters) or is there another mode of star formation for these?

30. Globular Cluster M3 Image K Teuwen

31. T. Böker et al. 2002 HST images of compact nuclear clusters

32. Some personal opinions (not all would agree…) Gravitational collapse of gas clouds naturally leads to disks in undisturbed systems Such disks will always start forming stars when a critical density is reached (note that there are ~no gas-rich, quiescent galaxies) This star formation is continuous, at a broadly constant rate, in the absence of outside influences, and as long as the gas supply holds up

33. Star formation timescale R-luminosity dependent extinction correction Bulge-dominated

34. Star formation timescale R-luminosity dependent extinction correction Bulge + disk

35. Star formation timescale R-luminosity dependent extinction correction Bulge-free

36. UGC 8508, Im UGC 9240, Im

37. Mean R profile Mean Hα profile Difference, Hα-R SmIm

38. But many galaxies are not disks… Q: Where do elliptical galaxies and spiral galaxy bulges come from? A: This seems to require the presence of stars (a non-dissipative component, unlike the gas), and something to stir them up Internal processes (bars, spiral arms) seem too weak – large bulges and elliptical galaxies probably need outside interference:

39. Simulation: J. Dubinski, U. Toronto

40. Some real interactions and mergers Atlas of peculiar galaxies, H. Arp

41. The Antennae, NGC 4038/4039. Colour Image: HST, B. Whitmore & F. Schweizer

42. Tadpole galaxy, Image:HST

43. Galaxy mergers – results from simulations Colliding disc galaxies form long tidal tails and arms After a close approach, they are likely to spiral together and merge Gas becomes centrally concentrated, → nuclear starburst Merger remnant density profiles resemble elliptical galaxies or bulges Characteristic ‘relaxation’ timescales quite short – few x 10 8 years Summary: undisturbed galaxies stay as thin discs, collisions make bulges or ellipticals

44. Under currently-favoured hierarchical cosmologies, mergers are common – most bright galaxies will have experienced at least one merger since their formation. ‘Minor mergers’ with dwarf galaxies may just build bulges or thicken disks; ‘major mergers’ of two large galaxies can make disks directly into ellipticals.

45. Bulge star-formation histories Colours, population synthesis analyses show that most bulges are dominated by old stars, ~10 Gyr old Bulges and ellipticals have little cold gas Full understanding of this involves feedback processes Feedback can come from stars (stellar winds and supernovae):

46. Galactic superwind in starburst M82

47. Bulges and feedback processes (contd.) The last decade has shown that bulges are closely linked to even more energetic phenomena than starbursts…

48. M31 Image: R. Gendler

49. Kormendy 1988a

52. Magorrian et al. 1998

53. MOST or ALL galaxies with bulges have central supermassive black holes! Magorrian et al. 1998 (Also Ferrarese & Merritt 2000, Gebhardt et al. 2000, Tremaine et al. 2002…)

54. All galaxies with bulges went through a quasar phase Quasar Images: HST

55. Quasar phase early in evolution of most galaxies Often linked to disturbance/mergers in HST imaging Results in ejection of gas from central regions Leaves a gas-free bulge with no further star formation Enriched gas from bulge can enhance metallicity of disk – possible solution of the ‘G-dwarf problem’ (very few low-metallicity disk stars in our galaxy)

56. Summary Initial collapse of gas cloud → rotating disk Gaseous disk → star formation (S-K law) If left alone, SF continues at ~ const. rate Bulges result from mergers, after a stellar component has formed Subsequent SF history shaped by feedback processes Bulge formation linked to supermassive nuclear black holes

57. Summary cont’d AGN feedback → ejection of gas from bulges/ellipticals, transition from blue → red sequence if feedback is strong enough Disk (re-)establishes itself around bulge, with gas enriched in heavy elements AGN becomes a quiescent BH when gas supply exhausted SF continues in disk, at rate and for a time dependent on gas supply

58. Plenty of open questions with this story…

59. Some people who know a lot about galaxies would say that most of this is WRONG. They hold that bulges and ellipticals can form from the initial collapse phase of a galaxy, with no need for mergers – Monolithic Collapse. (Everyone should read the paper by Eggen, Lynden-Bell and Sandage on the evidence for this from our Galaxy)

60. NGC 4449, HST Image Why are low-mass galaxies irregular, rather than disks, given their short relaxation timescales? (Gas fraction, DM, SN feedback?)

61. ESO 510-G13 Image: HST If mergers are as common as hierarchical theories imply, how do so many disks survive?

62. How do globular clusters form? How come the densest stellar systems form in the lowest density environment? Do all the stars form before the first burst of SNe? Why no angular momentum? M3 Image K Teuwen

63. Why do ellipticals have more globular clusters per unit mass than spirals? Why do many galaxies have two sets of clusters, red and blue? M3 Image K Teuwen

64. Can bulges form without outside interference? Some authorities (e.g. Combes) claim that bulges can develop through processes internal to disk galaxies (‘Secular evolution’) Principal mechanism is bar instability in disks

65. NGC 1300 Image: HST

66. Can bulges form without outside interference? Some authorities (e.g. Combes) claim that bulges can develop through processes internal to disk galaxies (‘Secular evolution’) Principal mechanism is bar instability in disks Bars efficiently funnel gas into central regions, fuelling star formation and potentially building bulges

67. NGC 1365 Image: VLT

68. Can bulges form without outside interference? Some authorities (e.g. Combes) claim that bulges can develop through processes internal to disk galaxies (‘Secular evolution’) Principal mechanism is bar instability in disks Bars efficiently funnel gas into central regions, fuelling star formation and potentially building bulges However, the resulting structures are flat ‘lenses’ – ongoing debate about whether ‘bulges’ have to bulge

69. What physical mechanism causes the mass scaling between bulges and nuclear black holes? (Not even clear to me in which direction any causal link should act.) How do the black holes form at all? Are they linked to the dense nuclear clusters seen in the bulge-free galaxies?

70. The 90% we have ignored so far… What is the dark matter? How is it distributed around galaxies? What effect does it have on bars? Do all galaxies have DM haloes?

71. NGC 3379 PN velocities: Romanovsky et al. 2003

72. Final conclusions/ annoying rant Always have a science question in mind, whatever you are working on. Always be willing to at least consider the answer you don’t want or don’t expect.