1. Process Versus Need-Based Theories of Motivation
Reflect a content perspective.
Try to list specific things that motivate behavior.
specific things that motivate behavior.
Process-Based Theories
Focus on how motivated behavior occurs.
Explain how people go about satisfying their needs.
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2. The Equity Theory of Motivation
Based on the relatively simple premise that people in organizations want to be treated fairly.
Equity
The belief that we are being treated fairly in relation to others.
Inequity
The belief that we are being treated unfairly in relation to others.
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3. Forming Equity Perceptions
People in organizations form perceptions of the equity of their treatment through a four-step process.
Step 1 A person evaluates how he or she is being treated by the firm.
Step 2
The person
forms a perception of how a “comparison
other” is
being treated.
Step 3 The person
compares his
or her own
circumstances
with those of
the comparison
other.
Step 4 On the strength
of this feeling,
the person may
choose to
pursue one or
more
alternatives.
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4. The Equity Comparison Process
Equity theory describes the equity comparison process in terms of an outcome-to-input ratio.
Outcomes (self)
Inputs (self)
Outcomes (other)
Inputs (other)
compared with
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5. Responses to Perceptions of Equity and Inequity
figure 6.1
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6. Evaluations and Implications
Research findings support predictions of equity theory for responses to inequity.
Equity theory offers managers three messages:
Everyone in the organization needs to understand the bases for rewards.
People tend to take a multifaceted view of their rewards; they perceive and experience a variety of rewards, some tangible and others intangible.
People base their actions on their perceptions of reality.
IS IT CULTURE BOUND? IS IT APPLICABLE IN OTHER CULTURES?
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7. The Expectancy Theory of Motivation
The Basic Expectancy Model
Suggests that people are motivated by how much they want something and the likelihood they perceive of getting it.
Effort-to-Performance Expectancy
A person’s perception of the probability that effort will lead to successful performance.
Performance-to-Outcome Expectancy
A person’s perception of the probability that performance will lead to certain (desired) outcomes.
Outcomes and Valences
The degree of attractiveness or unattractiveness (valence) of a particular outcome (reward that results from performance) to a person.
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8. The Expectancy Theory of Motivation
figure 6.2
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9. The Porter-Lawler Model
The model predicts that satisfaction is determined by the perceived equity of intrinsic and extrinsic rewards for high-level performance.
figure 6.3
Reference: Figure from Porter, Lyman W., and Edward E. Lawler, Managerial Attitudes and Performance. Copyright © Reproduced by permission of the publisher, McGraw-Hill, Inc.
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10. Evaluation and Implications
Research studies have confirmed:
The association of both kinds of expectancies and valences with performance and outcomes.
That motivated behavior by people arises from their valuing expected rewards, believing effort will lead to performance, and that performance will lead to desired rewards.
That expectancy theory explains motivation in the U.S. better than elsewhere. What is its applicability in other cultures?
IS IT APPLICABLE IN OTHER CULTURES?
WOULD IT APPLY HERE?
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11. Guidelines for the Use of Expectancy Theory
Practical use of the theory by managers:
Determine the primary outcome each employee wants.
Decide what levels and kinds of performance are needed to meet organizational goals.
Make sure the desired levels of performance are possible.
Link desired outcomes and desired performance.
Analyze the situation for conflicting expectations.
Make sure the rewards are large enough.
Make sure the overall system is equitable for everyone.
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12. Learning and Motivation
A relatively permanent change in behavior or behavioral potential resulting from direct or indirect experience.
The Traditional View: Classical Conditioning
Classical conditioning is a simple form of learning that links a conditioned response with an unconditioned stimulus.
The Contemporary View: Learning as a Cognitive Process
Learning is a cognitive process that involves conscious and active behavior.
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13. Learning as a Cognitive Process
Prior learning influences our behavioral choices. The perceived consequences of those choices become in turn a part of learning and affect future behavioral choices.
figure 6.4
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14. Reinforcement Theory and Learning
Based on the idea that behavior is a function of its consequences.
Behavior that results in pleasant consequences (reward) is likely to be repeated.
Behavior that results in unpleasant consequences is less likely to be repeated.
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15. Types of Reinforcement in Organizations
Positive Reinforcement
Avoidance (Negative Reinforcement)
Extinction
Punishment
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16. Types of Reinforcement in Organizations
Positive Reinforcement
A reward or other desirable consequence that follows behavior
Avoidance (Negative Reinforcement)
Also known as negative reinforcement; rather than receiving a reward following a desirable behavior, the person is given the opportunity to avoid an unpleasant consequence
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17. Types of Reinforcement in Organizations
Extinction
Decreases the frequency of behavior by eliminating a reward or desirable consequence that follows that behavior.
Punishment
An unpleasant, or aversive, consequence that results from behavior.
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18. Kinds of Reinforcement
Positive reinforcement and avoidance can be used to motivate desired behaviors by employees.
figure 6.5
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19. Kinds of Reinforcement
Extinction and punishment can be used to change undesired employee
figure 6.5
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20. Schedules of Reinforcement in Organizations
Schedule of Reinforcement
Nature of Reinforcement
Continuous
Behavior is reinforced every time it occurs.
Fixed-Interval
Behavior is reinforced according to some predetermined constant schedule based on time.
Variable-Interval
Behavior is reinforced after periods of time, but the time span varies from one time to the next.
Fixed-Ratio
Behavior is reinforced according to the number of behaviors exhibited, with the number of behaviors needed to gain reinforcement held constant.
Variable-Ratio
Behavior is reinforced according to the number of behaviors exhibited, but the number of behaviors needed to gain reinforcement varies from one time to the next.
table 6.1
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21. Organizational Behavior Modification
Behavior Modification in Organizations
Organizational behavior modification (OB mod) is the application of reinforcement theory to people in organizational settings.
Reinforcement theory says that the frequency of desirable behaviors can be increased by linking those behaviors with positive consequences.
Behavior modification uses positive reinforcement to encourage desirable behavior in employees.
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22. Organizational Behavior Modification
The Effectiveness of Behavior Modification
Has not always been 100% effective in every workplace application.
Managers frequently have only limited means for providing meaningful reinforcement for their employees.
Laboratory research is hard to generalize to the real world.
Behavior modification may be effective for a limited time.
The impact of the positive reinforcement wanes and employees come to view it as a routine part of the compensation system.
The Ethics of OB MOD
OB mod may compromise individual freedom of choice.
OB mod may be considered managerial manipulation.
Is it CULTURE BOUND?
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