1. Weeds – Why Control Them and How? Hort 301 November 26, 2007

2. What is a weed? A plant that forms populations that are able to enter habitats cultivated, markedly disturbed or occupied by man, and potentially depress or displace the resident plant populations which are deliberately cultivated or are of ecological and/or aesthetic interest Navis, 1991

3. Weeds Well adapted to environmental disturbances Thrive under conditions generated by agriculture field practice Produce large numbers of seeds –Pigweed100,000 seed/plant –Lambsquarters 70,000 seed/plant –Barnyardgrass 7,000 seed/plant –Purslane 50,000 seed/plant

4. Why Control Weeds? Lower yields and reduced income Less efficient land use Decreased production efficiency Higher costs of insect and disease control Poorer quality products Water management problems Lower human efficiency

5. Cost of Weeds Common on all 485 million acres of US cropland –Reduce yields by 12% annually ( ~ $36 billion loss) – $4.1 billion loss in return –w/o herbicides loss > $20 billion –$4 billion spent on herbicides –$3 billion on other methods Other concerns –Invasive species, waterways, pastures, range lands, lawns, gardens, golf courses

6. Types of Weed Control Prevention –Stopping a weed from contaminating a given area Control –Limit weed infestation by using some removal technique Eradication –Complete elimination of all live plant parts and seeds from an area

7. Methods Used to Manage Weeds Weed identification (taxonomic/picture keys) and life-cycle knowledge –Annuals, biennials, perennials Cultural and Mechanical Control Biological Chemical –Herbicides Genetic – GMO’s Crops weeds

8. Mulching – Physical and/or chemical Plastic Mulch Cover crop mulch – physical and allelopathic

9. What is the easiest and most consistent way to manage weeds?

10. Herbicides Herbicide action - Nonselective - kills all plants - Selective - kills some plants - Soil applied – no translocation or translocated - Foliar applied - contact or systemic

11. Genetic Approaches GMO’s –Herbicide resistant crops Roundup Ready - corn, soybeans, canola, cotton, sugar beets, wheat Liberty Link - corn, canola, sugar beet Poast - corn STS - soybeans BXN – cotton Clearfield – corn, wheat No horticulture crops released yet – –lettuce, mint, tomato, potato

12. Roundup Ready Corn

13. GMO Crops Corn, Soybeans, Cotton, Canola 10 million farmers in 22 countries planted over 100 million hectares with GMO crops in 2006 80% of GMO crops planted have the a herbicide resistance gene US – 95% of soybeans, 90% cotton, 60% corn acres are Roundup Ready

15. What are the values of Herbicides? Practical – make weed control much easier Scientific –Great tools to study physiological processes Photosynthesis Amino Acid biosynthesis Pigment formation Hormone action – auxins Lipid biosynthesis Cell division Cell wall synthesis Uptake, translocation, metabolism

16. What is Herbicide Mode of Action? The sequence of events from herbicide absorption into the plant until the plant dies

17. Herbicide Mode of Action Herbicide action is related to: –Adequate contact with the weed –Absorbed by the weed –Movement within the plant to site of action with no deactivation –Toxic levels reach the site of action –Plant injury and death

18. Regions of Herbicide Absorption

19. Foliar Deposition Dissipation runoff washoff volatilization photolysis Abiotic sequestration amorphous deposition crystallization Cuticular penetration Apoplastic penetration - cell wall - xylem Symplastic penetration - parenchyma - phloem Herbicides applied to plants and fate Root uptake Site of Action

20. For the herbicide to work… The herbicide must be delivered to the site of action at a concentration that is sufficient to cause death to the pest.

21. Volatalized or washed off Remain on outer surface Remain associated with the cuticle Enter and move apoplastically Enter and move symplastically Foliar Application The five fates of retained herbicide

22. Leaf Surface and Cuticle Very hydrophilic cell wall Hydrophilic pectin strands Lipophilic cutin matrix Very lipophilic wax layer Herbicides must cross ALL of these chemically varied layers to reach the interior of the plant

23. Wettability - Smooth Smooth wax layer - devoid of crystals Relatively easy to wet Pigweed

24. Heavily crystalline wax layer VERY difficult to wet Wettability - Crystalline Lambsquarters

25. Root uptake –No cuticular barrier –Must cross the Casparian strip Shoot uptake –Very little cuticular barrier in seedlings Soil Application and Absorption

26. Translocation routes…. Following root uptake –Xylem –Then phloem Following shoot/foliar uptake – Not translocated - contact – Localized transport Primarily xylem – Systemic transport Primarily phloem

27. For the herbicide to work… The herbicide must be delivered to the site of action at a concentration that is sufficient to cause death to the pest.

28. All biochemical targets of herbicides are inside the cell membrane All herbicides MUST cross at least one membrane to reach their target Crossing the membrane

29. Categories of Herbicide Mechanisms of Action Photosynthesis inhibitors Pigment inhibitors Cell membrane disrupters Amino acid inhibitors Lipid biosynthesis inhibitors Cell growth inhibitors – cell division Cellulose inhibitors – cell walls Growth regulators – abnormal hormone action Auxin transport – disrupt auxin transport Miscellaneous - Asulox, Prograss, DSMA, MSMA All underlined herbicide groups ultimately result in the same method of plant death

30. Photosystem II Inhibitors as an example Plant Response and Mechanism of Action Symptoms on the plant develop slowly over several days Leaves develop chlorosis (yellowing) followed by necrosis (tissue death) Chlorosis due to chlorophyll destruction (photooxidation) Necrosis due to membrane disruption from lipid peroxidation Inhibit electron transport in Photosystem II

31. Atrazine injury on soybean from root uptake

32. Photosynthesis overview 6 CO 2 + 6 H 2 OC 6 H 12 O 6 + 6 O 2 Light overall this is a highly unfavorable reaction it must be carried out in many, small steps

33. Site of Inhibition in PS II by Photosynthesis Inhibiting Herbicides Results in a blockage of electron transport to PQ

34. What Happens With all this Unused Energy ? High energy free radicals result in cell membrane disruption

35. Other herbicide groups that result in the production of free radicals as part of their biochemical mechanism of action

36. Herbicides that inhibit PSI Diquat & Paraquat

37. Examples of Postemergence Foliar Applied Contact Herbicides Membrane Disrupters - Paraquat

38. PPO Inhibitors Diphenylethers - acifluorfen, fomasafen, lactofen, oxyfluorfen, Oxidiazoles - oxidiazon, fluthiacet N-phenylheterocycles - carfentrazone, flumiclorac, sulfentrazone, flumioxazin, fluthiacet

39. Typical cupped leaf injury from diphenylether herbicide application to soybean

40. Pigment Inhibitors - Symptomology Gradual whitening (bleaching) of susceptible plants - loss of pigments Cessation of growth, and Tissue necrosis followed by death.

42. Glufosinate Activity Non-selective - Contact-like active Foliar applied at 1 to 1.5 lb /A Controls many annual and some perennial weeds Plant necrosis occurs in 1 - 5 days No activity by root uptake Efficacy is dependent on Uptake and Transport (Grasses > Broadleaves)

44. Free Radicals Lead to Lipid Peroxidation and Membrane Disruption

45. Take Home Points What is a weed? Why worry about them? Methods of management Herbicides most common How do herbicides work?

46. Take Home Points Fatal Effect of Many Herbicides on plants 1. Many result in production of toxic free radicals 2. Destroy of plant cell membranes 3. Cells lose integrity 4. Cells become leaky 5. Plant dies