1. Biomechanics Guest Lecture PT Interventions I Sean Collins

2. Objective Describe biomechanical principles during joint movement and functional activities. (CAPTE CC-5.20) –Will be broken down to 7 need to know questions & answers……

3. But first… some preliminaries Biomechanics (application of mechanics to biological systems) –Systems are well defined and isolated for computational reasons –Therefore requires assumptions –Does not only include musculoskeletal systems Kinesiology (Study of movement) –Systems exist as they are, can be well defined but less emphasis is placed on isolation –Still requires assumptions –Tends to focus on neuro musculoskeletal systems

4. …more preliminaries Kinetics – quantification of forces (as scalars or vectors) Kinematics – quantification of motion (vectors) Perspective –Biomechanics – isolate from the get go to try to understand isolated components and then bring to whole –Kinesiology – take in the whole and dig into isolated components as necessary to understand the whole

5. Fundamentals - Summary Human movement occurs due to forces created by muscles (Fm) acting on levers created by bones and joints and is therefore rotational movement –Even if we move through space in a line – there are many sets of isolated rotational movements allowing this to occur –Whole muscle factors – Length Tension; Force Velocity Rotational movement is created by torque Torque = F * pD (pD = Perpendicular Distance) Human movement is therefore the sum of of all Torques

6. Mechanics All motion is subject to laws and principles of force and motion F = ma Fundamental quantities: Mass (m), Length (l), Time (t) (also consider electric charge & temperature) Force = m (l x t -2 ) Why study mechanics?

7. Biomechanics The study of mechanics applied to living things Statics: all force acting on a body are balanced –Equilibrium (F 1 =F 2 ) Dynamics: deals with unbalanced forces (F 1 ≠ F 2 ) -> Δ acceleration

8. Kinematics and Kinetics Kinematics: geometry of motion Describe time, displacement, velocity, & acceleration Linear -motion in straight line; Angular - rotating Kinetics: forces that produce or change motion Linear – causes of linear motion; Angular – causes of angular motion

9. Laws of Motion The Law of Inertia: Acceleration requires Force Law of Acceleration: From: F = ma Derive: a = F/m Equal and opposite: F = -F (equal, opposite, collinear)

10. Angular Displacement The skeleton is a system of levers that rotate about fixed points when force is applied. Particles near axis have displacement less than those farther away. Degrees: –Used most frequently in measuring angular displacement.

11. Angular Velocity C traveled farther than A or B C moved a greater linear velocity than A or B All three have the same angular velocity, but linear velocity of the circular motion is proportional to the length of the lever

12. Analytical Tool: Vector analysis In biomechanics - Vector’s typically represent a Force and depicts its magnitude, direction, and point of application (note – can present quantities derived from Force (i.e. velocity) –Most simply represented as an arrow –Length is proportional to magnitude –Direction determined by its direction –Point of application considered conceptually

13. Scalar vs Vector Quantities Scalar: magnitude alone –Described by magnitude (Size or amount) –Ex. Speed of 8 km/hr Vector: magnitude and direction (minimally) –Described by magnitude and direction –Ex. Velocity of 8 km/hr heading northwest

14. Vector Quantities Equal if magnitude & direction are equal Which of these vectors are equal? A. B. C. D. E. F.

15. Combination of Vectors Vectors may be combined: –addition, subtraction, or multiplication New vector called the resultant (R) Fig 10.2 Vector R can be achieved by different combination

16. Combination of Vectors Fig 10.3

17. What is an example of combining vectors in biomechanics? Every movement you observe is caused by resultant muscle force vectors – so what of “abnormal” movements?

18. Resolution of Vectors Any vector may be broken down into component vectors in a coordinate system (i.e. Cartesian coordinate system) –Components are at right angles to one another –Coordinate system can be local or global 2 vector components – 2 d planes 3 vector components – 3 d space

19. Resolution of Vectors What is the vertical velocity (A)? What is the horizontal velocity (B)? A & B are components of resultant (R) Fig 10.4

20. Location of Vectors in Space For 2 d (2 vector) planar analysis: Horizontal line is the x axis Vertical line is the y axis Coordinates for a point are represented by two numbers (x,y) (13,5)

21. From Vectors to Movement Vectors represent muscle force Muscle forces act on bony lever systems and create Torque (also called Moments) Torque is an angular (rotary) force and results in angular movement Human movement is the sum of all Torques acting at all joints

22. Force Vectors Force is a vector quantity –Magnitude –Direction –Point of Application For a weight lifter to lift a 250 N barbell –Lifter must apply a force greater than 250 N, in an upward direction, through the center of gravity of the barbell

23. Point of Application Point at which force is applied to an object Where gravity is concerned, this point is always through the center of gravity For muscular force, that point is assumed to be the muscle’s attachment to a bony lever Technically, it is the point of intersection of –line of force and –mechanical axis of the bone

24. Direction Direction of a force is along its action line Direction of muscular force vector is the direction of line of pull of the muscle Direction of gravity is vertically downward Gravity is a downward- directed vector starting at the center of gravity of the object

25. Direction of Muscular Force Vector Muscle angle of pull: the angle between the line of pull and the portion of mechanical axis between the point of application and the joint Fig 12.1

26. Angle of Pull Force may be resolved into a vertical and a horizontal component Size of each depends on angle of pull A muscle’s angle of pull changes with every degree of joint motion So do the horizontal & vertical components The larger the angle (0 0 - 90 0 ), the greater the vertical and less the horizontal components

27. Angle of Pull As seen here, the patella creates a larger moment arm (the perpendicular distance from the line of action to the axis of the joint) The patella allows this joint to favor rotary/angular/ movement force. Without it the force from the quads would be redirected towards the joint.

28. Angle of Pull Vertical component is perpendicular to the lever, and is called the rotary component (aka angular force or movement force) Horizontal component is parallel to the lever, and is called the nonrotary component (aka stabilizing force) Most resting muscles have an angle of pull < 90 0

29. Rotary vs. Nonrotary Components Angle of pull < 90 0 As the angle of pull gets smaller, the moment arm decreases. Nonrotary force is directed toward fulcrum Stabilizing effect –Helps maintain integrity of the joint –Almost all of the force generated is directed back to the joint, pulling the bones together Fig 12.1a

30. Rotary vs. Nonrotary Components Angle of pull > 90 0 Nonrotary force is directed away fulcrum Dislocating component –It is called a dislocating force because the force generated is directed away from the joint Muscle is at limit of shortening range and does not exert much force (Reminder: active insuficiency) Fig 12.1c

31. Rotary vs. Nonrotary Components Angle of pull = 90 0 Force is all rotary/angular force The moment arm is at its greatest length Angle of pull = 45 0 Rotary & nonrotary components are equal Muscular force functions: Movement Stabilization

32. Drawing Vectors 1. Note the Axis of the Joint 2. Draw the Horizontal component - Parallel to Lever - Start at muscle intertions * 90˚ all rotary (movement force) * > 90˚ Distracting (force generated away form joint) * < 90˚ Compressive (force generated towards joint) 3. Draw Vertical Component - Perpendicular - Start at muscle insertions 4. Draw vectors ONLY long enough to make a perpendicular angle to the resultant vector.

33. Torque or Moment The turning effect of an rotary force Equals the product of the force magnitude and the length of the moment arm Moment arm (later will divide the moment arm into the “effort” and “resistance” arm in certain situations) is the perpendicular distance form the line of force to the axis of rotation Torque be modified by changing either force or moment arm Fig 13.2

34. Length of Moment Arm Perpendicular distance from the direction of force to the axis of rotation At 45 0 moment arm is no longer the length of the forearm Can be calculated using trigonometry Fig 13.3

35. Length of Moment Arm In the body, weight of a segment cannot be altered instantaneously Therefore, torque of a segment due to gravitational force can be changed only by changing the length of the moment arm Fig 13.4 W d W d

36. Gluteus Medius

37. Hamstrings

38. Summation of Torques Movement is equal to the sum of Torques and Forces Forces that result in balanced torque do not produce rotary motion (i.e. a balanced scale); but the forces are summed and can produce linear motion (i.e. a canoe) Forces that result in an imbalance of Torque produce rotary motion (i.e. elbow flexion) Objects undergoing Rotary motion may exert Force that produces Linear motion (i.e. push up)

39. Principle of Torques Resultant torques of a force system must be equal to the sum of the torques of the individual forces of the system about the same point Must consider both magnitude and direction –In Biomechanics - Torques can be named by the movement –Biceps brachii creates an elbow flexion torque; Hamstrings create a knee flexion torque –When you know the movement a muscle creates as an agonist, you know the Torque its Force vector tends to create at that joint

40. Force Couple The effect of parallel forces acting in opposite direction Fig 13.6 & 13.7

41. THE LEVER A rigid bar that can rotate about a fixed point when a force is applied to overcome a resistance They are used to; –overcome a resistance larger than the magnitude of the effort applied –increase the speed and range of motion through which a resistance can be moved

42. External Levers Using a small force to overcome a large resistance –Ex. a crowbar Using a large ROM to overcome a small resistance –Ex. Hitting a golf ball Used to balance a force and a load –Ex. a seesaw

43. Anatomical Levers Nearly every bone is a lever The joint is the fulcrum Contracting muscles are the force Do not necessarily resemble bars –Ex. skull, scapula, vertebrae The resistance point may be difficult to identify May be difficult to determine resistance –weight, antagonistic muscles & fasciae

44. Lever Arms Portion of lever between fulcrum & force points Effort arm (EA): Perpendicular distance between fulcrum & line of force of effort Resistance arm (RA): Perpendicular distance between fulcrum & line of resistance force

45. Classification of Levers Three points on the lever have been identified 1. Fulcrum 2. Effort point 3. Resistance point There are three possible arrangements of these point That arrangement is the basis for the classification of levers (based on mechanical advantage due to the moment arm of the effort or the resistance).

46. First-Class Levers R E A Fig 13.12 E = Effort A = Axis or fulcrum R = Resistance or weight

47. Second-Class Levers R E A Fig 13.13 E = Effort A = Axis or fulcrum R = Resistance or weight

48. Third-Class Levers Fig 13.14 R E A E = Effort A = Axis or fulcrum R = Resistance or weight

49. The Principle of Levers Any lever will balance when the product of the effort and the effort arm equals the product of the resistance and the resistance arm (Note this is a balanced torque system since E x EA = Torque E; R x RA = Torque R E x EA = R x RA -> no rotation Fig 13.16

50. Relation of Speed to Range in Movements of Levers In angular movements, speed and range are interdependent Note – this is the same concept as discussed for angular displacement and angular velocity

51. Mechanical Advantage of Levers Ability to magnify force The “output” relative to its “input” Ratio of resistance overcome to effort applied MA = R / E *MA = Mechanical Advantage Since the balanced lever equation is, R / E = EA / RA Then MA = EA / RA (Greater #, greater MA) Used for comparisons – which of two or more possibilities gives the greatest MA? (Example – squat bar position)

52. Q1 Define: concentric, eccentric, isometric, isotonic, isokinetic exercise. Be able to give examples of each. Concentric: Tm > Te Eccentric: Tm < Te Isometric: Tm = Te Isotonic: Speed varies (The T inequality varies throughout the ROM and therefore the Speed Varies (assumes the F is constant and pD is changing)) Isokinetic: Speed is constant (The T inequality is held constant by varying Te: a machine adjusts its force during the ROM; Tm, and Fm can vary greatly while maintaining the same speed of motion)

53. Q2: How do these exercises vary in terms of peak torque that can be produced? Eccentric > Isometric > Concentric But some thoughts – 1.Peak Torque of the muscle is always produced at the optimal combination of peak Fm (length tension; and force velocity needs to be considered) and peak dD for the joint / muscle system 2.This cascade really refers to our ability to generate peak Tm to resist Te – So - we will always move less than we can hold, and hold less than we can allow to drop

54. Q3: How does the velocity of the exercise affect the peak torque of each of these types of exercise? Focus on the “Peak” of Peak Torque here – Then: Force – Velocity relationship –Peak Fm (and therefore Peak Tm) is inversely proportional to Velocity (but not linear) In most circumstances the Fm & Tm “Cause” a particular Velocity At times we consider – if we want to move at X Velocity – how much Fm and Tm can be maximally produced

55. Q4: What is the difference between open kinematic chain vs closed kinematic chain; “Normal action”vs “Reverse action”? Be able to give examples of each. Open kinematic chain: distal end of UE or LE is not interacting with a force other than gravity Closed kinematic chain: distal end of UE of LE is interacting with a force other than gravity (large mass – rigid system) “Normal” action –for lower extremity typically normal actions if closed chain; for upper extremity typically normal if open chain Normal also involves an assumption of the normally moving element (bone) in the lever system Reverse action – Stabilizing the “normally” moving element –I.e. – stabilize the radius/ulna and move the humerus with the bicep; fix the humerus and move the sternum with the pec major

56. Q5: What is an agonist, antagonist, cocontraction, synergist, active insufficiency, passive insufficiency. Be able to give examples of each. Agonist – one muscle creating Fm, Tm for motion Synergists – muscles creating Fm that creates the Sum of Tm that creates a particular movement (we sort of clump them in usual use – biceps, triceps, quadriceps, hamstrings; but then there is also another level of synergist – “hamstrings and glut max for hip extension) Anatagonists – muscles that create opposite Fm, Tm of the syngerstic agonists, so if biceps create Fm, Tm; Triceps create –Fm, -Tm Active / Passive insufficiency – Refers specifically to muscles that cross > 1 joint –Active – length tension (Fm) issues associated with >1 joint muscles –Passive – length and therefore ROM issues associated with > 1 joint muscles

57. Q6: Define the three types of levers? Define the types in terms of EF, RF, EA, RA, and mechanical advantage. Be able to sketch and give examples of each. Define in terms of concentric, eccentric and isometric exercise. EF – Effort Force --- Fm RF – Resistance Force ---- Fe or Fm if antagonist EA = pD of the Effort Force RA = pD of the Resistance Force MA = EA / RA

58. Q7: Do lever arms change in concentric vs eccentric motions? How? Define in terms of concentric, eccentric and isometric exercise. Do they change? Depends on who you ask and what your assumptions are – if you “Define” Effort as that force creating motion – then the lever system changes with Eccentric vs. Concentric actions. However, if you Define Effort in a human system as that which requires Fm and therefore Bioenergetics, then the lever system does not change with Eccentric vs. Concentric actions. My thoughts – understand it both ways – know the assumptions, and focus on understanding and what Forces and pD’s are creating what Torques

59. Discussion Questions Why is walking down stairs more difficult than up for someone with patellofemoral problems? Why is standing up from a commode seat easier than from a low toilet? Why is sitting easier than standing from the seated position? What changes in sit to stand make the exercise more challenging? In what way?

60. Discussion Questions How do you position an ankle weight to decrease the hip flexion torque requirements despite using the same load? How does a rigid ankle foot orthosis help control knee flexion during stance? Why does a person with severe COPD need to lean forward and support their upper extremities to breath when the diaphragm is flat?