1. COE 571 Digital System Testing An Introduction Dr. Aiman H. El-Maleh Computer Engineering Department King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals Dr. Aiman H. El-Maleh Computer Engineering Department King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals

2. 1-2 OutlineOutline n Welcome to COE 571 n VLSI Realization Process n Definition of Testing n Reasons for Testing n Chip Manufacturing Process n Manufacturing Cost n Main Difficulties in Testing n Defects & Faults n Fault Models n Automatic Test Pattern Generation n Welcome to COE 571 n VLSI Realization Process n Definition of Testing n Reasons for Testing n Chip Manufacturing Process n Manufacturing Cost n Main Difficulties in Testing n Defects & Faults n Fault Models n Automatic Test Pattern Generation

3. 1-3 Welcome to COE 571 n Instructor:Dr. Aiman H. El-Maleh n Office:Building 22, Room 318 n Office Phone:2811 n Office Hours:SMW 11:00–12:00 PM n Email: aimane@kfupm.edu.sa aimane@kfupm.edu.sa aimane@kfupm.edu.sa n Instructor:Dr. Aiman H. El-Maleh n Office:Building 22, Room 318 n Office Phone:2811 n Office Hours:SMW 11:00–12:00 PM n Email: aimane@kfupm.edu.sa aimane@kfupm.edu.sa aimane@kfupm.edu.sa

4. 1-4 Grading Policy n Assignments 15% n Exam I15% (S., March 29, 7:00 PM) n Exam II20% (S., May 17, 7:00 PM) n Paper Presentations10% n Project20% n Final20% Attendance will be taken regularly. Excuses for officially authorized absences must be presented no later than one week following resumption of class attendance. Late assignments will be accepted (upto 3 days) but you will be penalized 10% per each late day. A student caught cheating in any of the assignments will get 0 out of 15%. No makeup will be made for missing Quizzes or Exams. n Assignments 15% n Exam I15% (S., March 29, 7:00 PM) n Exam II20% (S., May 17, 7:00 PM) n Paper Presentations10% n Project20% n Final20% Attendance will be taken regularly. Excuses for officially authorized absences must be presented no later than one week following resumption of class attendance. Late assignments will be accepted (upto 3 days) but you will be penalized 10% per each late day. A student caught cheating in any of the assignments will get 0 out of 15%. No makeup will be made for missing Quizzes or Exams.

5. 1-5 Course Topics n Introduction: The testing problem, costs of testing, test types and schemes. n Fault modeling: Fault detection and redundancy, fault equivalence, dominance, checkpoints and collapsing. Fault diagnosis. Stuck-at faults, bridging faults, transistor faults, delay faults, etc. n Fault simulation: serial, parallel, deductive, and concurrent fault simulation. Parallel pattern single fault propagation, critical path tracing and fault sampling. n Test generation for Combinational circuits: Boolean difference, path sensitization, D-algorithm, PODEM, and FAN. Random test generation, Combined random/deterministic test generation. Test compaction. Cost functions and testability measures. n Introduction: The testing problem, costs of testing, test types and schemes. n Fault modeling: Fault detection and redundancy, fault equivalence, dominance, checkpoints and collapsing. Fault diagnosis. Stuck-at faults, bridging faults, transistor faults, delay faults, etc. n Fault simulation: serial, parallel, deductive, and concurrent fault simulation. Parallel pattern single fault propagation, critical path tracing and fault sampling. n Test generation for Combinational circuits: Boolean difference, path sensitization, D-algorithm, PODEM, and FAN. Random test generation, Combined random/deterministic test generation. Test compaction. Cost functions and testability measures.

6. 1-6 Course Topics n Test generation for sequential circuits : Time- frame expansion, extended D-algorithm, BACK algorithm, simulation-based approaches, and complexity of sequential ATPG. n Test generation for CMOS circuits : Test generation for transistor stuck-open and stuck short faults. Test generation based on gate-level models, robust and non-robust test generation. n Delay-fault testing : Gate and path delay fault models, robust, validatable nonrobust and nonrobust test vectors, path delay fault simulation and test generation. n Test generation for sequential circuits : Time- frame expansion, extended D-algorithm, BACK algorithm, simulation-based approaches, and complexity of sequential ATPG. n Test generation for CMOS circuits : Test generation for transistor stuck-open and stuck short faults. Test generation based on gate-level models, robust and non-robust test generation. n Delay-fault testing : Gate and path delay fault models, robust, validatable nonrobust and nonrobust test vectors, path delay fault simulation and test generation.

7. 1-7 Course Topics n Design for testability : Ad-hoc methods, types of scan cells, LSSD, full scan design, partial scan design, and boundary scan design. Partial scan selection techniques. n Built-in self test : Theory and operation of LFSR, MISR, random and weighted random pattern testability, BIST pattern generator and response analyzer, scan- based BIST architecture, and test point insertion for improving random testability. n Design for testability : Ad-hoc methods, types of scan cells, LSSD, full scan design, partial scan design, and boundary scan design. Partial scan selection techniques. n Built-in self test : Theory and operation of LFSR, MISR, random and weighted random pattern testability, BIST pattern generator and response analyzer, scan- based BIST architecture, and test point insertion for improving random testability.

8. 1-8 TextbookTextbook n Digital Systems Testing and Testable Design Miron AbramoviciMiron Abramovici, Melvin A. Breuer, Arthur D. Friedman Melvin A. BreuerArthur D. Friedman Miron AbramoviciMelvin A. BreuerArthur D. Friedman n ISBN: 978-0-7803-1062-9 n September 1994, Wiley- IEEE Press n Digital Systems Testing and Testable Design Miron AbramoviciMiron Abramovici, Melvin A. Breuer, Arthur D. Friedman Melvin A. BreuerArthur D. Friedman Miron AbramoviciMelvin A. BreuerArthur D. Friedman n ISBN: 978-0-7803-1062-9 n September 1994, Wiley- IEEE Press

9. 1-9 VLSI Realization Process Determine requirements Write specifications Design synthesis and Verification Fabrication Manufacturing test Chips to customer Customer’s need Test development

10. 1-10 DefinitionsDefinitions n Design synthesis: Given an I/O function, develop a procedure to manufacture a device using known materials and processes. n Verification: Predictive analysis to ensure that the synthesized design, when manufactured, will perform the given I/O function. n Test: A manufacturing step that ensures that the physical device, manufactured from the synthesized design, has no manufacturing defect. n Design synthesis: Given an I/O function, develop a procedure to manufacture a device using known materials and processes. n Verification: Predictive analysis to ensure that the synthesized design, when manufactured, will perform the given I/O function. n Test: A manufacturing step that ensures that the physical device, manufactured from the synthesized design, has no manufacturing defect.

11. 1-11 Verification vs. Test n Verifies correctness of design. n Performed by simulation, hardware emulation, or formal methods. n Performed once prior to manufacturing. n Responsible for quality of design. n Verifies correctness of design. n Performed by simulation, hardware emulation, or formal methods. n Performed once prior to manufacturing. n Responsible for quality of design. n Verifies correctness of manufactured hardware. n Two-part process: 1. Test generation: software process executed once during design 2. Test application: electrical tests applied to hardware n Test application performed on every manufactured device. n Responsible for quality of devices. VerificationTest

12. 1-12 Definition of Testing n A known input stimulus is applied to a unit in a known state, and a known response can be evaluated.

13. 1-13 ExampleExample

14. 1-14 Reasons for Testing n Detection: Determination whether or not the device under test (DUT) has some fault. Measurement of defects and quality level Reliability requirement n Diagnosis: Identification of a specific fault that is present on DUT. n Device characterization: Determination and correction of errors in design and/or test procedure. n Failure mode analysis (FMA): Determination of manufacturing process errors that may have caused defects on the DUT. n Detection: Determination whether or not the device under test (DUT) has some fault. Measurement of defects and quality level Reliability requirement n Diagnosis: Identification of a specific fault that is present on DUT. n Device characterization: Determination and correction of errors in design and/or test procedure. n Failure mode analysis (FMA): Determination of manufacturing process errors that may have caused defects on the DUT.

15. 1-15 Chip Manufacturing Process Silicon ingot Slicer Blank wafers 20 to 30 processing steps 8-12 in diameter 12-24 in long < 0.1 in thick Patterned wafer Dicer Individual dies Die Tester Tested dies Bond die to package Packaged dies Part Tester Tested Packaged dies Ship to Customers

16. 1-16 Wafer of Pentium 4 Processors n 8 inches (20 cm) in diameter n Die area is 250 mm 2 About 16 mm per side n 55 million transistors per die 0.18 μm technology Size of smallest transistor Improved technology uses 0.13 μm and 0.09 μm n Dies per wafer = 169 When yield = 100% Number is reduced after testing Rounded dies at boundary are useless n 8 inches (20 cm) in diameter n Die area is 250 mm 2 About 16 mm per side n 55 million transistors per die 0.18 μm technology Size of smallest transistor Improved technology uses 0.13 μm and 0.09 μm n Dies per wafer = 169 When yield = 100% Number is reduced after testing Rounded dies at boundary are useless

17. 1-17 Effect of Die Size on Yield Dramatic decrease in yield with larger dies Yield = (Number of Good Dies) / (Total Number of Dies) Defective Die Good Die (1 + (Defect per area  Die area / 2)) 2 1 Yield = Die Cost = (Wafer Cost) / (Dies per Wafer  Yield)

18. 1-18 Product Manufacturing Cost

19. 1-19 Product Manufacturing Cost n Reduction of silicon cost increasing volume and yield die size reduction (process shrinks or more efficient layout) n Reduction of packaging cost increasing volume shifting to lower cost packages if possible (e.g., from ceramic to plastic) reduction in package pin count n Reduction in cost of test reducing vector data size reducing the cost of the tester reducing test time n Reduction of silicon cost increasing volume and yield die size reduction (process shrinks or more efficient layout) n Reduction of packaging cost increasing volume shifting to lower cost packages if possible (e.g., from ceramic to plastic) reduction in package pin count n Reduction in cost of test reducing vector data size reducing the cost of the tester reducing test time

20. 1-20 Main Difficulties in Testing n Miniaturization Physical access difficult or impossible. n Increasing complexity Large amount of test data. n Number of access ports remains constant Long test application time. n High speed High demand on tester’s driver/sensor mechanism and more complicated failure mechanism. n Testing accounts up to 50% of product development efforts. n The key to successful testing lies in the design process. n Miniaturization Physical access difficult or impossible. n Increasing complexity Large amount of test data. n Number of access ports remains constant Long test application time. n High speed High demand on tester’s driver/sensor mechanism and more complicated failure mechanism. n Testing accounts up to 50% of product development efforts. n The key to successful testing lies in the design process.

21. 1-21 Main Difficulties in Testing

22. 1-22 Costs of Testing n Design for testability (DFT) Chip area overhead and yield reduction Performance overhead n Software processes of test Test generation and fault simulation Test programming and debugging n Manufacturing test Automatic test equipment (ATE) capital cost Test center operational cost n Design for testability (DFT) Chip area overhead and yield reduction Performance overhead n Software processes of test Test generation and fault simulation Test programming and debugging n Manufacturing test Automatic test equipment (ATE) capital cost Test center operational cost

23. 1-23 Cost of Manufacturing Test n 0.5-1.0GHz, analog instruments,1,024 digital pins: ATE purchase price= $1.2M + 1,024 x $3,000 = $4.272M n Running cost (five-year linear depreciation) = Depreciation + Maintenance + Operation = $0.854M + $0.085M + $0.5M = $1.439M/year n Test cost (24 hour ATE operation) = $1.439M/(365 x 24 x 3,600) = 4.5 cents/second n 0.5-1.0GHz, analog instruments,1,024 digital pins: ATE purchase price= $1.2M + 1,024 x $3,000 = $4.272M n Running cost (five-year linear depreciation) = Depreciation + Maintenance + Operation = $0.854M + $0.085M + $0.5M = $1.439M/year n Test cost (24 hour ATE operation) = $1.439M/(365 x 24 x 3,600) = 4.5 cents/second

24. 1-24 Automatic Test Equipment Components n Powerful computer n Powerful 32-bit Digital Signal Processor (DSP) for analog testing n Test Program (written in high-level language) running on the computer n Probe Head (actually touches the bare or packaged chip to perform fault detection experiments) n Probe Card or Membrane Probe (contains electronics to measure signals on chip pin or pad) n Powerful computer n Powerful 32-bit Digital Signal Processor (DSP) for analog testing n Test Program (written in high-level language) running on the computer n Probe Head (actually touches the bare or packaged chip to perform fault detection experiments) n Probe Card or Membrane Probe (contains electronics to measure signals on chip pin or pad)

25. 1-25 ADVANTEST Model T6682 ATE

26. 1-26 LTX FUSION HF ATE

27. 1-27 Manufacturing Test Board n The chip will be accessed by the tester at its pins only n A custom (load) board will be made for this purpose n Each pin has a limited number of bits available (e.g., 2 MB) n Test program (set of vectors and tester control) applied at tester speed (may be less than actual chip speed) n Primary goal of manufacturing test is structural verification n The chip will be accessed by the tester at its pins only n A custom (load) board will be made for this purpose n Each pin has a limited number of bits available (e.g., 2 MB) n Test program (set of vectors and tester control) applied at tester speed (may be less than actual chip speed) n Primary goal of manufacturing test is structural verification

28. 1-28 Design For Testability n To take into account the testing aspects during the design process so that more testable designs will be generated. n Advantages of DFT Reduce test efforts. Eases generation of test vectors Eases diagnosis & debugging Reduce cost for test equipments (ATE). Shorten turnaround time. Increase product quality. n Disadvantages of DFT Adds complexity to design methodology Impacts design area, power, speed and package pins n To take into account the testing aspects during the design process so that more testable designs will be generated. n Advantages of DFT Reduce test efforts. Eases generation of test vectors Eases diagnosis & debugging Reduce cost for test equipments (ATE). Shorten turnaround time. Increase product quality. n Disadvantages of DFT Adds complexity to design methodology Impacts design area, power, speed and package pins

29. 1-29 DefectsDefects n Defects: physical problems that occur in silicon n Common Silicon CMOS defects: Gate-oxide shorts Insufficient doping Process or mask errors Metal trace opens Metal trace bridges Open and plugged vias Short to power (Vdd) or Ground (Vss) n Defects: physical problems that occur in silicon n Common Silicon CMOS defects: Gate-oxide shorts Insufficient doping Process or mask errors Metal trace opens Metal trace bridges Open and plugged vias Short to power (Vdd) or Ground (Vss)

30. 1-30 DefectsDefects

31. 1-31 FaultsFaults n Fault is a model of failure mode of defect that relates defect to circuit behavior. n Example Gate-Oxide short shorts transistor’s source to drain (S2D) Modeled by connecting gate to 0 or 1 Transistor Stuck-on or Stuck-off n Behavior resulting from these models may be a high current, a high impedance state or intermittent behavior. n Fault is a model of failure mode of defect that relates defect to circuit behavior. n Example Gate-Oxide short shorts transistor’s source to drain (S2D) Modeled by connecting gate to 0 or 1 Transistor Stuck-on or Stuck-off n Behavior resulting from these models may be a high current, a high impedance state or intermittent behavior.

32. 1-32 Common Fault Models n Single stuck-at faults n Multiple stuck-at faults n Transistor open and short faults n Bridging faults n Delay faults (transition, path) n Memory faults n PLA faults (stuck-at, cross-point, bridging) n Functional faults (processors) n Analog faults n Single stuck-at faults n Multiple stuck-at faults n Transistor open and short faults n Bridging faults n Delay faults (transition, path) n Memory faults n PLA faults (stuck-at, cross-point, bridging) n Functional faults (processors) n Analog faults

33. 1-33 Single Stuck-at Fault Model n Failures represented as an individual wire shorted to Vdd (stuck-at-1) or Vss (stuck-at-0). n Covers many of physical defects. n Number of faults small. n Independent of technology. n Can be used to model other type of faults. n Failures represented as an individual wire shorted to Vdd (stuck-at-1) or Vss (stuck-at-0). n Covers many of physical defects. n Number of faults small. n Independent of technology. n Can be used to model other type of faults.

34. 1-34 ExampleExample

35. 1-35 Multiple Stuck-at Faults n A multiple stuck-at fault means that any set of lines is stuck-at some combination of (0,1) values. n The total number of multiple stuck-at faults in a circuit with k single fault sites is 3 k -1. n A single fault test can fail to detect the target fault if another fault is also present, however, such masking of one fault by another is rare. n Statistically, single fault tests cover a very large number of multiple faults. n A multiple stuck-at fault means that any set of lines is stuck-at some combination of (0,1) values. n The total number of multiple stuck-at faults in a circuit with k single fault sites is 3 k -1. n A single fault test can fail to detect the target fault if another fault is also present, however, such masking of one fault by another is rare. n Statistically, single fault tests cover a very large number of multiple faults.

36. 1-36 Transistor (Switch) Faults n MOS transistor is considered an ideal switch and two types of faults are modeled: Stuck-open -- a single transistor is permanently stuck in the open state. Stuck-short -- a single transistor is permanently shorted irrespective of its gate voltage. n Detection of a stuck-open fault requires two vectors. n Detection of a stuck-short fault requires the measurement of quiescent current (IDDQ). n MOS transistor is considered an ideal switch and two types of faults are modeled: Stuck-open -- a single transistor is permanently stuck in the open state. Stuck-short -- a single transistor is permanently shorted irrespective of its gate voltage. n Detection of a stuck-open fault requires two vectors. n Detection of a stuck-short fault requires the measurement of quiescent current (IDDQ).

37. 1-37 Stuck-Open Example Two-vector s-op test can be constructed by ordering two s-at tests A B V DD C pMOS FETs nMOS FETs Stuck- open 1010 0000 01(Z) Good circuit states Faulty circuit states Vector 1: test for A s-a-0 (Initialization vector) Vector 2 (test for A s-a-1)

38. 1-38 Stuck-Short Example A B V DD C pMOS FETs nMOS FETs Stuck- short 1010 0 (X) Good circuit state Faulty circuit state Test vector for A s-a-0 I DDQ path in faulty circuit

39. 1-39 Delay Faults n Some defects do not manifest a logical incorrect behavior but appear as an increase in delay n Example Small metal open on a connection trace Logic value still propagates Propagation of value is slowed down n Some defects do not manifest a logical incorrect behavior but appear as an increase in delay n Example Small metal open on a connection trace Logic value still propagates Propagation of value is slowed down

40. 1-40 ExampleExample

41. 1-41 Fault Coverage n Used as measure of test quality

42. 1-42 Types of Testing

43. 1-43 Automatic Test Pattern Generation n Eases generation of test vectors. n Reduces cost of test More efficient test vectors Reduction in cycle time n Provides a deterministic quality metric. n Eases generation of test vectors. n Reduces cost of test More efficient test vectors Reduction in cycle time n Provides a deterministic quality metric.

44. 1-44 Detectable Fault

45. 1-45 Undetectable Fault