1. C# Structs, operator overloading & attributes

2. Structs ~ Structures Structs are similar to classes: they represent data structures with data and functions. Structs are different from classes: variables of a struct type directly contain the value, whereas variables of a class type contain a reference to the value (i.e. the object).

3. Structs 2 Structs are value types and are said to have value semantics. struct Point { public int x, y; public Point(int x, int y) { this.x = x; this.y = y; }

4. Structs 3 Classes are reference types and are said to have reference semantics. Point is a struct: 10; Point is a class: 100 Point a = new Point(10, 10); Point b = a; a.x = 100; System.Console.WriteLine(b.x);

5. Constructing structs All struct types implicitly inherit directly from System.ValueType, and are never abstract. A struct is not permitted to declare a parameterless instance constructor; every struct has one implicitly. The default value of a struct is the value produced by setting all its value type fields to their default value and all its reference type fields to null. The struct value itself cannot be null.

6. Operators & operands Expressions are constructed from operands and operators. The operators of an expression indicate which operations to apply to the operands. Examples of operators include +, -, *, /, and ‘new’. Examples of operands include literals, fields, local variables, and expressions.

7. Operators Three kinds of operators: –Unary operators. The unary operators take one operand and use either prefix notation (such as –x ) or postfix notation (such as x++ ). –Binary operators. The binary operators take two operands and all use infix notation (such as x + y ). –Ternary operator. Only one ternary operator, ?:, exists; it takes three operands and uses infix notation (c ? x : y ).

8. Operator overloading 1 Certain operators can be overloaded. (Cannot overload e.g. =, &&, ||, ?:, method invocation or member access) Operator overloading permits user- defined operator implementations to be specified for operations

9. Operator overloading 2 User-defined operator declarations always require at least one of the parameters to be of the class or struct type that contains the operator declaration. User-defined operator declarations cannot modify the syntax, precedence, or associativity of an operator.

10. Operator overloading example using System; public struct Digit { byte value; public Digit(byte value) { this.value = value; } public Digit(int value): this((byte) value) {} public static Digit operator+(Digit a, Digit b) { return new Digit(a.value + b.value); } public static Digit operator-(Digit a, Digit b) { return new Digit(a.value - b.value); } public static bool operator==(Digit a, Digit b) { return a.value == b.value; } … }

11. Attributes C# programmers can attach attributes to various program entities, and retrieve attribute information at run-time. Principally analogous to well-known declarations of program entities, e.g. method access: public, protected, and private. Attributes are accessible at run-time in a “reflective” manner.

12. Attributes 2 A class that derives from the abstract class System.Attribute is an attribute class. The declaration of an attribute class defines a new kind of attribute that can be placed on a declaration. By convention, attribute classes are named with a suffix of ‘Attribute’.

13. Attribute parameters Attribute classes can have positional parameters and named parameters. Each public instance constructor for an attribute class defines a valid sequence of positional parameters for that attribute class. Each non-static public read-write field and property for an attribute class defines a named parameter for the attribute class.

14. Attribute example using System; [AttributeUsage(AttributeTargets.Class)] public class HelpAttribute: Attribute { public HelpAttribute(string url) { // url is a positional parameter } public string Topic { // Topic is a named parameter get {…} set {…} } public string Url { get {…} } }

15. Attribute example (cont.) This Help attribute class might be used as follows: [Help("http://www.mycompany.com/…/Class1.htm")] class Class1 { … } [Help("http://www.mycompany.com/…/Misc.htm", Topic ="Class2")] 1 class Class2 { … }

16. Querying attributes using System; class Test { static void Main() { Type type = typeof(Class1); object[] arr = type.GetCustomAttributes(typeof(HelpAttribute), true); if (arr.Length == 0) Console.WriteLine("Class1 has no Help attribute."); else { HelpAttribute ha = (HelpAttribute) arr[0]; Console.WriteLine("Url = {0}, Topic = {1}", ha.Url, ha.Topic); }

17. Using System; class Test { static void Main() { string s = "Test"; string t = string.Copy(s); Console.WriteLine(s == t); Console.WriteLine((object)s == (object)t); } Produces: True False

18. Design goals Simple, modern, general-purpose, object- oriented programming language. Software robustness, durability, and programmer productivity are important. Not intended to compete directly on performance and size with C or assembly language.

19. Hello, World Source stored in one or more text files with a file extension of.cs compiled with a command line like csc hello.cs using System; class Hello { static void Main() { Console.WriteLine("hello, world"); }

20. Language details C# is a standard proposal from ECMA Technical Committee 39, Task Group 2 (TG2) C# does not contain a standard class library Common Language Infrastructure (CLI) is a standard for a library and execution environment CLI is a standard proposal from Task Group 3

21. Unified type system using System; class Test { static void Main() { Console.WriteLine(3.ToString()); }

22. Boxing/unboxing ” This type system unification provides value types with the benefits of object-ness without introducing unnecessary overhead. ” class Test { static void Main() { int i = 123; object o = i; // boxing int j = (int) o; // unboxing }

23. Casting Implicit casting Explicit casting

24. Example of reference passing using System; class Test { static void Swap(ref int a, ref int b) { int t = a; a = b; b = t; } static void Main() { int x = 1; int y = 2; Console.WriteLine("pre: x = {0}, y = {1}", x, y); Swap(ref x, ref y); Console.WriteLine("post: x = {0}, y = {1}", x, y); } Produces:pre: x = 1, y = 2 post: x = 2, y = 1 2

25. Parameters Value parameter Reference parameter Output parameter Parameter array

26. Value parameters Used for ’in’ passing to a method Value is copied to method’s scope

27. Example of value passing using System; class Test { static void F(int p) { Console.WriteLine("p = {0}", p); p++; } static void Main() { int a = 1; Console.WriteLine("pre: a = {0}", a); F(a); Console.WriteLine("post: a = {0}", a); } Produces:pre: a = 1 p = 1 post: a = 1

28. Example of output parameters using System; class Test { static void Divide(int a, int b, out int result, out int remainder) { result = a / b; remainder = a % b; } static void Main() { for (int i = 1; i < 10; i++) for (int j = 1; j < 10; j++) { int ans, r; 18 Divide(i, j, out ans, out r); Console.WriteLine("{0} / {1} = {2}r{3}", i, j, ans, r); }

29. Properties & Indices

30. Delegates