1. Primate characteristics

2. Quadrupedal locomotion
FIGURE 6.2 (part 1) Primate Adaptation in Microcosm: The Taï Forest, Ivory Coast, West Africa
Primates have a generalized skeletal structure. The bones that make up the shoulders, upper limbs, lower limbs, and other major joints such as the hands and feet are separate, giving primates a great deal of flexibility when moving in trees. In this monkey skeleton, note the grasping hands and feet, the long tail, and the equal length of the front and hind limbs relative to each other.

3. A gibbon
A brachiator

4. Flexible, generalized limb structure;
A lemur
Flexible, generalized limb structure;
e.g.: a vertical clinger and leaper

5. Prehensile hands (and feet); opposable thumb (and toe)
Retention of 5 digits
FIGURE 6.3 Grips and Opposable Thumbs
Apes and humans have two kinds of grips: power and precision. (a) The power grip shown here, as a human holds a hammer, preceded the evolution of the precision grip. (b) The apes’ precision grip is not nearly as developed as humans’. (c) The finer precision grip of humans—in part due to the greater opposability of their thumbs—lets them finely manipulate tools.
Primate characteristics
(continued)

6. FIGURE 6.4b Opposable Big Toes
Nonhuman primates’ opposable big toes, like their opposable thumbs, enable their feet to grasp things such as tree branches. Humans lack this feature due to their adaptation to life on the ground. (a) Its curved hallux makes (b) the chimpanzee foot look more like a human hand (not shown) (b) (c) than like (c) a human foot.
© Kennan Ward/Corbis

7. A bushbaby
Broad size range
Gigantopithecus
Est. 1,000 lbs.

8. Nails instead of claws. FIGURE 6.6 Fingernails
Finger pads with nail support help primates, such as this orangutan, securely hold tree branches that are smaller than their hands. By contrast, claws enable nonprimate mammals to dig into tree bark, an especially helpful ability when limbs or tree trunks are larger than the animals’ paws.
© Frank Lukasseck/zefa/Corbis

9. Tactile pads at ends of digits.
FIGURE 6.2 (part 2) Primate Adaptation in Microcosm: The Taï Forest, Ivory Coast, West Africa
Primates have an enhanced sense of touch. This sensitivity is due in part to the presence of dermal ridges (finger-prints and toe prints) on the inside surfaces of the hands and feet. The potto, a prosimian, has primitive dermal ridges, whereas the human, a higher primate, has more derived ridges, which provide better gripping ability.

10. Diet and teeth
1. Lack of specialization.
2. Generalized dentition.

11. FIGURE Honing Complex
(a) In Old World monkeys and apes, the lower jaw has a diastema to accommodate the very large upper canines. (b) Humans lack such a space, because they do not have large, projecting upper canines.
© William K. Sacco

12. Orbit
fully enclosed
Postorbital bar
Orbit completely
open

13. Color vision: evolutionary trend for diurnal activity.
3-D vision
Visual information from each eye to visual centers in both hemispheres of brain
Color vision: evolutionary trend for diurnal activity.

14. Reduced reliance on information from odors
FIGURE 6.2 (part 5) Primate Adaptation in Microcosm: The Taï Forest, Ivory Coast, West Africa
Primates have a reduced sense of smell. The smaller and less projecting snouts of most primates indicate their decreased reliance on smell.

15. Decreased reliance on sense of smell.
FIGURE 6.7a Primate Vision
(a) Primates’ forward-facing eyes enable depth perception, a vital adaptation to life in the trees that has a selective advantage beyond arboreal life. Consider what would happen if a primate attempted to leap from one branch to another without being able to determine the distance between the two branches. Now imagine a human leaping over a (relatively) narrow chasm without knowing how far to leap.
© Theo Allofs

16. Increase in size and complexity of brain.
FIGURE 6.16a Primate Brain Morphology
(a) Among nonhuman primate species, the great apes have the largest and most complex brains, while prosimians have the smallest and least complex.

17. Long gestation.
Reduced numbers of offspring/pregnancy.
Extended period of time to reach reproductive maturity
Greater dependence on flexible, learned behaviors

18. Tendency to live in social groups.

19. Menstrual and estrus cycles)