1. Classical Linear Regression Model Finite Sample Properties of OLS Restricted Least Squares Specification Errors –Omitted Variables –Irreverent Variables

2. Finite Sample Properties of OLS Finite Sample Properties of b b =  + (X′X) -1 X′  –Under A.1-3, E(b|X) =  –Under A.1-4, Var(b|X) =  2 (X′X) -1 –Under A.1-4, the OLS estimator is efficient in the class of linear unbiased estimators (Gauss- Markov Theorem).

3. Finite Sample Properties of OLS Proof of Gauss-Markov Theorem –b = (X′X) -1 X′y, Var(b|X) =  2 (X′X) -1 –Let d=Ay be another linear unbiased estimator of , where A= (X′X) -1 X′+C and C≠0, CX=0 E(d|X) = E[(X′X) -1 X′+C)(X  +  )|X] =  Var(d|X) = Var(Ay|X) =  2 ((X′X) -1 X′+C)((X′X) -1 X′+C)’ =  2 ((X′X) -1 +CC′) = Var(b|X)+  2 CC′ Therefore, Var(d|X) ≥ Var(b|X)

4. Finite Sample Properties of OLS OLS estimator is BLUE. Assumption 2 (exogeneity) plays an important role to establish these results: –b is linear in y and . –b is unbiased estimator of  : E(b) = E(E(b|X)) =  –b is efficient or best: Var(b) = E(Var(b|X)) is the minimum variance- covariance matrix

5. Finite Sample Properties of OLS The relationship between s 2 and  2 –s 2 =e′e/(n-K), e = y-Xb Finite Sample Properties of s 2 –Under A.1-4, E(s 2 |X)=  2 (and hence E(s 2 )=  2 ), provided n > K.

6. Finite Sample Properties of OLS Proof of E(s 2 |X)=  2 : s 2 is an unbiased estimator of  2 (Recall: s 2 =e′e/(n-K), e=M , M=I-X(X′X) -1 X′) –E(e′e|X)=E(  ′M  |X)= E(trace(  ′M  |X) = E(trace(M  ′  |X)=trace(ME(  ′|X)) = trace(M  2 I)=  2 trace(M)=  2 (n-K) –Therefore, E(s 2 |X)=E(e′e/(n-K)|X)=  2

7. Finite Sample Properties of OLS Estimate of Var(b|X) = s 2 (X′X) -1 Standard Errors

8. Restricted Least Squares b * = argmin  SSR(  ) = (y-X  )′(y-X  ) s.t. R  = q (b *, * ) = argmin ( , ) SSR * (  ) = (y-X  )′(y-X  ) + ′(R  – q) R: J x K restriction matrix q: J x 1 vector of restricted values : J x 1 vector of Langrangian multiplier

9. Restricted Least Squares Linear Restrictions: R  = q

10. Algebra of Restricted Least Squares  SSR * (  )/  = -2X ′ (y-X  )+R ′ = 0  SSR * (  )/  = R  – q = 0 * = 2[R(X ′ X) -1 R ′ ] -1 [R(X ′ X) -1 X ′ y-q] b * = (X’X) -1 X ′ y-½(X ′ X) -1 R ′ * = (X ′ X) -1 X ′ y - (X ′ X) -1 R ′ [R(X ′ X) -1 R ′ ] -1 [R(X ′ X) -1 X ′ y-q] = b - (X ′ X) -1 R ′ [R(X ′ X) -1 R ′ ] -1 (Rb-q) e * = y – Xb * = e + X(b-b * ) e *′ e * = e ′ e + (b-b * ) ′ X ′ X(b-b * ) > e ′ e e *′ e * - e ′ e = (Rb-q) ′ [R(X ′ X) -1 R ′ ] -1 (Rb-q) E(b * |X) =  - (X ′ X) -1 R ′ [R(X ′ X) -1 R ′ ] -1 [R  -q] E(b * |X) ≠  unless R  =q Var(b * |X) = Var(b|X)-  2 (X ′ X) -1 R ′ [R(X ′ X) -1 R ′ ] -1 R(X ′ X) -1

11. Discussions Linear regression without constant term (or intercept), a special case of restricted least squares. Restricted least squares estimator is biased if the restriction is incorrectly specified.

12. Application: Specification Errors Omitting relevant variables: Suppose the correct model is y = X 1  1 + X 2  2 + . That is, two sets of variables. Compute least squares omitting X 2. Some easily proved results: Var[b 1 ] is smaller than Var[b 1.2 ]. (The latter is the northwest sub-matrix of the full covariance matrix. The proof uses the residual maker (again!). That is, you get a smaller variance when you omit X 2. (One interpretation: Omitting X 2 amounts to using extra information (  2 = 0). Even if the information is wrong, it reduces the variance.

13. Application: Specification Errors E[b 1 ] =  1 + (X 1 X 1 ) -1 X 1 X 2  2   1. So, b 1 is biased.(!!!) The bias can be huge. Can reverse the sign of a price coefficient in a “demand equation.” b 1 may be more “precise.” Precision = Mean squared error = variance + squared bias. Smaller variance but positive bias. If bias is small, may still favor the short regression. Suppose X 1 X 2 = 0. Then the bias goes away. Interpretation, the information is not “right,” it is irrelevant. b 1 is the same as b 1.2.

14. Application: Specification Errors Including superfluous variables: Just reverse the results. Including superfluous variables increases variance. (The cost of not using information.) Does not cause a bias, because if the variables in X 2 are truly superfluous, then  2 = 0, so E[b 1.2 ] =  1.

15. Example Linear Regression Model: y = X  +  G =  0 +  1 PG +  2 Y +  3 PNC +  4 PUC +  y = G; X = [1 PG Y PNC PUC] Note: All variables are log transformed. Linear Restrictions: R  – q = 0  3 =  4 = 0