1. Tonda Bone University of North Texas Dena Johnson Tarleton State University ISECON 2007 A Theoretical Framework for Investigating Human Factors in GIS Use: The Impact of Spatial Ability, Computer Aptitude, and Cognition

2. 2 Research Gap Current research focuses on: Spatial abilities in context of map reading task, cognitive map construction, wayfinding experiments GIS as presentation device rather than as a problem-solving tool Current research does not address: Cognitive style dimensions in context of GIS use Computer aptitude as factor in GIS use

3. 3 Research Gap We need to understand how human factors influence GIS use For academic purposes GIS as a learning tool GIS design For industry GIS design GIS training

4. 4 What is an Information System? An information system “consists of at least one PERSON of a certain PSYCHOLOGICAL TYPE who faces a PROBLEM within some ORGANIZATIONAL CONTEXT for which he needs evidence to arrive at a solution and that the EVIDENCE is made available to him through some MODE OF PRESENTATION” (Mason & Mitroff, 1973, p. 475, emphasis in original, bullets added).

5. 5 What is a Geographic Information System (GIS)? A spatially-referenced information system that provides tools for collecting, managing, integrating, analyzing, and displaying data that is spatially referenced (Goodchild, Egenhofer, Kemp, Mark, & Sheppard, 1999; Turk, 1990) Includes representations of locations, as well as non-spatial data (attributes) that describe those locations A structure incorporating 5 elements (Turk, 1990) : Data Hardware Software Procedures People

6. 6 Spatial Cognition “The knowledge and internal or cognitive representation of the structure, entities, and relations of space; in other words, the internalized reflection and reconstruction of space in thought” (Hart and Moore, 1973, p. 248) 3 distinct factors of spatial ability Spatial visualization Spatial manipulation Spatial relations

7. 7 Spatial Visualization Ability to mentally manipulate spatial objects and configurations without referring to one’s self as a reference point (Albert & Golledge, 1999; Hegarty & Waller, 2005; McGee, 1979) May be important to GIS in the function of moving map layers for analysis and for display, and for performing logical operations on spatial elements

8. 8 Spatial Orientation Ability to imagine how a visual stimulus or configuration looks from a different perspective (Albert & Golledge, 1993) May be important to GIS because operators have to change perspective when dealing with 3D representations before making inferences about the data (Albert & Golledge, 1993)

9. 9 Spatial Relations Involves analyzing patterns, shape, layout, hierarchy, and linkage between individual stimuli within a visual configuration (Albert & Golledge, 1993; Gilmartin & Patton, 1984; Golledge, Dougherty, & Bell, 1995 ) May be important in GIS functions of identifying and categorizing features, recognizing spatial association

10. 10 Map Reading Ability Data interaction occurs primarily through the map interface; thus, map interaction also is an important component of GIS use (Lloyd & Bunch, 2003) How does information acquisition from maps, including internal representation, influence GIS use?

11. 11 Human Spatial Information Processing Hierarchical organization and categorization Chunking Category theory Cognitive mapping Of physical space Of virtual (computer) space

12. 12 Mental models and problem solving Mental modeling process “mirrors” GIS analysis processes (Turk, 1990) Involves inferencing, context, cognitive load, and past experiences (Allen, 1996; Ramaprasad, 1987; Rauh, Knauff, Cuss, Schlieder, and Strube, 2005; Tversky, 1993) Using GIS to model the problem space could aid mental modeling development

13. 13 Cognitive Styles Example: Need for cognition (NFC) Cohen, Stotland, and Wolfe (1955): NFC as a need to structure one’s environment Crossland, Herschel, Perkins, and Scudder (2000): NFC as a measure “of an individual’s internal motivation to pursue and enjoy thinking activities” (p. 17)

14. 14 Computer Aptitude Refers to literacy aspects of computer and Internet technologies Computer use is a spatial task Affects performance on mental rotations tests (De Lisi & Cammarano, 1996; Sacuzzo, Craig, Johnson, & Larson, 1996; Terlecki & Newcombe 2005)

15. 15 Summary: Main Human Factors in GIS Interaction Spatial abilities e.g., visualization, orientation, relations Map reading abilities Problem solving style Mental models Need for cognition Cognitive Style Computer attitude and efficacy

16. 16 Future Research Computer attitude and efficacy User interaction in context Mental models of GIS spatial representations Map sketching with GIS Psychometric studies

17. 17 The End Questions and comments?

18. 18 Works Cited Albert, W. S., & Golledge, R. G. (1999). The use of spatial cognitive abilities in geographical information systems: The map overlay operation. Transactions in GIS, 3 (1), 7-21. Allen, B. L. (1996). Information tasks: Toward a user-centered approach to information systems. San Diego: Academic Press.

19. 19 Works Cited (cont.) Cohen, A. R., Stotland, E., & Wolfe, D. M. (1955). An experimental investigation of need for cognition. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 51, 291-294. Crossland, M. D., Herschel, R. T., Perkins, W. C., & Scudder, J. N. (2000). The imact of task and cognitive style on decision-making effectiveness using a geographic information system. Journal of End User Computing, 21 (1), 14-23.

20. 20 Works Cited (cont.) De Lisi, R., & Cammarano, D. M. (1996). Computer experience and gender differences in undergraduate mental rotation performance. Computers in Human Behavior, 12 (3), 351-361. Gilmartin, P. P., & Patton, J. C. (1984). Comparing the sexes on spatial abilities: Map use skills. Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 74 (4), 605-619.

21. 21 Works Cited (cont.) Golledge, R. G., Dougherty, V., & Bell, S. (1995). Acquiring spatial knowledge: Survey versus route-based knowledge in unfamiliar environments. Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 85 (1), 134-158. Goodchild, M. F., Egenhofer, M. J., Kemp, K. K., Mark, D. M., & Sheppard, E. (1999). Introduction to the Varenius Project. International Journal of Geographical Information Science, 13 (8), 731-745.

22. 22 Works Cited (cont.) Hart, R. A., & Moore, G. T. (1973). The development of spatial cognition: A review. In R. M. Downs & D. Stea (Eds.), Image and environment: Cognitive mapping and spatial behavior (pp. 246-295). Chicago: Aldine Publishing Co.

23. 23 Works Cited (cont.) Hegarty, M., & Waller, D. (2005). Individual differences in spatial abilities. In P. Shah & A. Miyake (Eds.), The Cambridge handbook of visuospatial thinking (pp. 120-169). New York: Cambridge University Press. Lloyd, R. E., & Bunch, R. L. (2003). Technology and map-learning: Users, methods, and symbols. Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 93 (4), 828-850.

24. 24 Works Cited (cont.) Mark, D. M. (1993). Human spatial cognition. In D. Medyckyj-Scott & H. M. Hearnshaw (Eds.), Human factors in geographic information systems. London: Bellhaven. McGee, M. G. (1979). Human spatial abilities: Psychometric studies and environmental, genetic, hormonal, and neurological influences. Psychological Bulletin, 86, 889-918.

25. 25 Works Cited (cont.) Ramaprasad, A. (1987). Cognitive process as a basis for MIS and DSS design. Management Science, 33 (2), 139-148. Rauh, R., Hagen, C., Knauff, M., Kuss, T., Schlieder, C., & Strube, G. (2005). Preferred and alternative mental models in spatial reasoning. Spatial Cognition and Computation, 5 (2&3), 239-269.

26. 26 Works Cited (cont.) Saccuzzo, D. P., Craig, A. S., Johnson, N. E., & Larson, G. E. (1996). Gender differences in dynamic spatial abilities. Personality and Individual Differences, 21 (4), 599-607. Terlecki, M. S., & Newcombe, N. S. (2005). How important is the digital divide? The relation of computer and videogame usage to gender differences in mental rotation ability. Sex Roles, 53 (5/6), 433-441.

27. 27 Works Cited (cont.) Turk, A. G. (1990). Towards an understanding of human-computer interaction aspects of geographic information systems. Cartography, 19 (1), 31-60. Tversky, B. (1993). Cognitive maps, cognitive collages, and spatial mental models. In A. U. Frank & I. Campari (Eds.), Proceedings of the International Conference on Spatial Information Theory: A theoretical basis for GIS (pp. 14- 24). Berlin: Springer-Verlag.

28. 28 Works Cited (cont.) Velez, M. C., Silver, D., & Tremaine, M. (2005, October 23-28). Understanding visualization through spatial ability differences. Paper presented at the IEEE Visualization 2005, Minneapolis, MN.