1. . Pointers to functions Debugging

2. Logistics u Mid-term exam: 18/11  Closed books  List of topics – see web page Some you have to read by yourself! u Reminder: one person per exercise  Copying will be severely punished  Make sure your PLAB directory is not readable for other people

3. Pointers to Functions u C/C++ allow to have a pointer to a function int foo(int x) {…} main() { int (*func)(int); // func is a pointer to a function func = &foo; func = foo; // same int x = (*func)(7); // same as x = foo(7) }

4. Example: Numerical Integrator

5. double numericalIntegration( double a, double b, double (*func)(double), int k ) { double delta = (b - a)/k; double Sum = 0; for( double x = a+0.5*delta; x < b; x+= delta ) Sum += (*func)(x); return Sum*delta; } See NumericalIntergator.c

6. Example u Suppose we implement an interface of a list of ints IntList.h: struct IntList; // intListNew() // Allocates a new list IntList* intListNew(); …

7. Example typedef void (*funcInt)( int x, void* Data ); // intListMAPCAR(List, Func, Data ) // // Apply Func to each element of the list // void intListMAPCAR( IntList* List, funcInt Func, void* Data );

8. Using MAPCAR See UseList.c

9. “Generic” interface u MAPCAR is a uniform way of performing computations over list elements  The given function provides the different functional element u Pointers to functions provide a way to write code that receives functions as arguments

10. Example: qsort Library procedure: qsort( void *base, size_t n, size_t size, int (*compare)(void const*, void const *) );  base – start of an array  n – number of elements  size – size of each element  compare – comparison function

11. Using qsort int compareInt(void const *p, void const *q) { int a = *(int const*)p; int b = *(int const*)q; if( a < b ) return -1; return a > b; } … int array[10] = { … }; qsort( array, 10, sizeof(int), compareInt );

12. Testing Important aspect of programming u Careful testing of each module, reduce further bugs later on. u Automatic retesting, allow to ensure changes in code do not introduce new “features” How can we test our code?

13. Testing “Interpreter” u A generic code for interactive/batch test int testCmdLine( TestCmdLineCommand const*Commands, void* Data ) Arguments:  Commands – list of commands  Data – data shared by commands

14. Testing Interpreter enum TestCmdLineReturnCode { e_TestCmdLineOK, e_TestCmdLineQuit, e_TestCmdLineAbort }; typedef TestCmdLineReturnCode (*TestCmdLineFunc)(void* Data, char const* const* ArgV ); struct TestCmdLineCommand { char* m_Name; // Command Name char* m_Desc; // One line description int m_ArgNum; // # of arguments TestCmdLineFunc m_Func; // Function to call };

15. Building a test program See TestIntList.c

16. To do Read man pages  FILE I/O: fopen, fclose, fprintf, fgetchar, fflush  Sorting & Searching: qsort, heapsort, bsearch u Compile program supplied with this class u Run them in DDD (or gdb)  set breakpoints  step through program  force an assert, and see what happens

17. Debugging 101 1. Divide & Conquer 2. “Define” the bug --- reproduce it 3. Use tools: debugger & more 4. Don’t panic --- think!

18. Define the bug Spend the time to find out u What is wrong? u Minimal settings that lead to the error? Reproduce the wrong behavior! u Preferably on a small example

19. Divide & Conquer Consider possible points of failure  check each one of them separately

20. Use Debugger Debugger u Allow to monitor run time behavior u Check where the program crashes u Put breakpoints on specific events u Trace execution of the program

21. Debugger Debugger can save a lot of time u Find why the program crash u Understand the context (call tree, value of variables, etc.) But… u Don’t be trapped into using debuggers all the time

22. Other tools u Intermediate printouts u self-checking code u asserts u Memory allocation & leaks (Tirgul)

23. Don’t Panic There a sensible explanation to the bug  Always!  Don’t rush to blame the compiler/OS  Don’t attribute bugs to mysterious forces Do not try random changes to see if they resolve the program  This will only introduce more bugs!