1. 22 Sustaining Wild Species
Miller’s - Living in the Environment
13th Edition

2. Factors Affecting Biodiversity
Factors that increase biodiversity
Physically diverse habitat
Moderate environmental disturbance
Small variation in environmental conditions
Middle stages of succession
Evolution
Factors that decrease biodiversity
Environmental stress
Large environmental disturbance
Extreme environmental conditions
Severe limitations of an essential resource
Introduction of a non-native species
Geographic isolation

3. Human Impacts on Biodiversity
Fig p. 561

4. The State of US Species Diversity

5. Strategies for Protecting Biodiversity
Species approach
Ecosystem approach

6. Species Extinction Local extinction Ecological extinction
a species is no longer found in an area it once inhabited, but is still found elsewhere in the world
Ecological extinction
so few members of a species are left that it can no longer play its ecological roles in the biological communities where it is found

7. Biological extinction is forever!
Species Extinction
Biological extinction
a species is no longer found anywhere on the earth.
Biological extinction is forever!

8. Animal species that have become prematurely extinct
Passenger pigeon
Great auk
Dodo
Dusky seaside sparrow
Aepyornis
(Madagascar)

9. ‘Endangered’ and ‘Threatened’ Species
Endangered species
species with so few individual survivors that the species could soon become extinct over all or most of its natural range.
Northern spotted owl (threatened)
Florida manatee
Florida panther
Gray wolf
Bannerman's turaco (Africa)
© 2004 Brooks/Cole-Thomson Learning

10. Endangered and Threatened Species
Threatened (vulnerable) species
species that is still abundant in its natural range but because of declining numbers is likely to become endangered in the near future.
Northern spotted owl (threatened)
Florida manatee
Florida panther
Gray wolf
Bannerman's turaco (Africa)
© 2004 Brooks/Cole-Thomson Learning

11. Extinction Rate Background (natural) rate of extinction
0.0001% per year (1/10,000)
Mass extinctions
Adaptive radiations
- recovery after mass extinctions

12. Extinction Risks Factors: population size, habitat, and genetics
Population viability analysis
Minimum viable population
Minimum dynamic area

13. What are some characteristics of extinction-prone species?

14. Fixed migratory patterns Commercially valuable
Characteristic
Examples
Low reproductive rate
(K-strategist)
Blue whale, giant panda,
rhinoceros
Specialized niche
Blue whale, giant panda,
Everglades kite
Narrow distribution
Many island species,
elephant seal, desert pupfish
Bengal tiger, bald eagle,
grizzly bear
Feeds at high trophic
level
Fixed migratory patterns
Blue whale, whooping crane,
sea turtles
Rare
Many island species,
African violet, some orchids
Commercially valuable
Snow leopard, tiger,
elephant, rhinoceros,
rare plants and birds
Large territories
California condor, grizzly
bear, Florida panther

15. Effects of Human Activities on Extinction Rates
Before humans, extinction rate was one species per million annually
Current rate of extinction is estimated at 100 to 1000 times the rate before humans
Speciation Crisis - limiting long-term recovery of biodiversity by reducing the rate of speciation for some types of species.

16. Why Should We Care About Biodiversity?
Instrumental value
their usefulness to us
Intrinsic value
they exist, regard-less of whether they have any usefulness to us

17. Instrumental Values of Biodiversity
Utilitarian (use)
Economic Goods
Food, fuel, fiber, lumber, paper, medicine, other useful products
90% of food crops were domesticated from wild plants
A majority of our medicines were derived from plants.
Bioprospecting – evaluating species for their economic potential

18. Pacific yew
Taxus brevifolia
Pacific Northwest
Ovarian cancer
taxol

19. Cinchona Cinchona ledogeriana South America
Quinine for malaria treatment

20. Rosy periwinkle Cathranthus roseus native to Madagascar
Hodgkin's disease,
lymphocytic leukemia

21. Neem tree Azadirachta indica native to India Treatment of many
diseases, insecticide,
spermicide

23. Instrumental Values of Biodiversity
Utilitarian (use)
Economic Goods
Food, fuel, fiber, lumber, paper, medicine, other useful products
90% of food crops were domesticated from wild plants
A majority of our medicines were derived from plants.
Bioprospecting – evaluating species for their economic potential

24. Instrumental Values of Biodiversity
Utilitarian (use)
Ecological Services
Flow of materials, energy, and information from the biosphere
Photosynthesis
Pollination
Soil formation
Nutrient recycling
Pest control
Climate regulation
Flood control
Waste decomposition

25. Instrumental Values of Biodiversity
Utilitarian (use)
Information
Genetic information
Scientific information
Educational information

26. Instrumental Values of Biodiversity
Utilitarian (use)
Options
People are willing to ‘pay’ for the option of using resources directly

27. Instrumental Values of Biodiversity
Utilitarian (use)
Recreation
We value recreational pleasure.
Eco-tourism
Should not cause ecological damage.
Should provide income to preserve wildlife.
Should provide funds for the purchase and maintenance of wildlife preserves and conservation programs.

28. Instrumental Values of Biodiversity
Non-utilitarian (no use) Values
Existence – value in knowing a thing exists
Aesthetic – value in the beauty
Bequest – willingness to pay to protect natural capital for future generations

29. Intrinsic Value of Biodiversity
Each species has an inherent value and right to exist that is unrelated to their usefulness to humans
Biodiversity matters and should not be depleted or degraded by our activities

30. HIPPO Habitat loss Habitat degradation Overfishing Basic Causes
Introducing
nonnative
species
Climate
change
Population growth
Rising resource use
No environmental accounting
Poverty
Commercial
hunting
and
poaching
Pollution
Sale of
exotic pets
and
decorative
plants
Predator
and
pest control
HIPPO

31. Major types of habitat disturbances
Agriculture
Commercial development
Water development
Outdoor recreation
Livestock grazing
Pollution

32. Habitat Fragmentation
When a large continuous area of habitat is
reduced in area
divided into a patchwork of isolated areas or fragments

33. HABITAT FRAGMENTATION
Reduction in ranges of four wildlife species, mostly due to habitat loss and overharvest.

34. Indian Tiger Range 100 years ago Range today (about 2,300 left)
Figure 11.8
Natural capital degradation: reductions in the ranges of four wildlife species, mostly as the result of habitat loss and hunting. What will happen to these and millions of other species when the world’s human population doubles and per capita resource consumption rises sharply in the next few decades? (Data from International Union for the Conservation of Nature and World Wildlife Fund)
Indian Tiger
Range 100 years ago
Range today
(about 2,300 left)

35. Black Rhino Range in 1700 Range today (about 3,600 left) Figure 11.8
Natural capital degradation: reductions in the ranges of four wildlife species, mostly as the result of habitat loss and hunting. What will happen to these and millions of other species when the world’s human population doubles and per capita resource consumption rises sharply in the next few decades? (Data from International Union for the Conservation of Nature and World Wildlife Fund)
Black Rhino
Range in 1700
Range today
(about 3,600 left)

36. Probable range 1600 African Elephant Range today Figure 11.8
Natural capital degradation: reductions in the ranges of four wildlife species, mostly as the result of habitat loss and hunting. What will happen to these and millions of other species when the world’s human population doubles and per capita resource consumption rises sharply in the next few decades? (Data from International Union for the Conservation of Nature and World Wildlife Fund)
Probable range 1600
Range today
African Elephant

37. Asian or Indian Elephant
Figure 11.8
Natural capital degradation: reductions in the ranges of four wildlife species, mostly as the result of habitat loss and hunting. What will happen to these and millions of other species when the world’s human population doubles and per capita resource consumption rises sharply in the next few decades? (Data from International Union for the Conservation of Nature and World Wildlife Fund)
Asian or Indian Elephant
Former range
Range today
(34,000–54,000 left)

38. California gnatcatcher
Figure Page 574
Cerulean warbler
Sprague’s pipit
Bichnell’s thrush
Blacked-capped vireo
Golden-cheeked
warbler
Florida scrub jay
California gnatcatcher
Kirtland’s warbler
Henslow’s sparrow
Bachman’s warbler
Ten most threatened species of U.S. songbirds. Habitat loss and fragmentation most common threat.

39. Temperate broadleaf forests 94%
Biome
% of Area Disturbed
Temperate broadleaf forests
94%
Temperate evergreen forests
94%
Temperate grasslands
72%
Mixed mountain systems
71%
Tropical dry forests
70%
Subtropical and temperate rain forests
67%
Cold deserts and semideserts
55%
Mixed island systems
53%
Warm deserts and semideserts
44%
Tropical humid forests
37%
Tropical grasslands
26%
Temperate boreal forests
18%
Tundra
0.7%

40. Extinction Threats from Non-native Species
After habitat loss and degradation, non-native species are the biggest cause of animal and plant extinctions.
Deliberately or accidentally introduced

41. Type of Nonnative Organism Annual Losses and Damages Crop disease
$23.5 billion
Crop weeds
$23.4 billion
Rats
$19 billion
Feral cats and outdoor pet cats
$17 billion
Crop insects
$14 billion
Livestock diseases
$9 billion
Forest insects and diseases
$4.8 billion
Zebra mussels
$3 billion
Common pigeon
$1.1 billion
Formosan termite
$1.1 billion
Fishes
$1.1 billion
Asian clam
$1.1 billion
Feral pigs
$0.8 billion
Starlings
$0.8 billion
Fire ant
$0.6 billion

42. Deliberately Introduced Species
Figure (1) Page 576
Purple loosestrife
European starling
African honeybee
(“Killer bee”)
Nutria
Salt cedar
(Tamarisk)
Marine toad
Water hyacinth
Japanese beetle
Hydrilla
European wild boar
(Feral pig)
Deliberately Introduced Species

43. Accidentally Introduced Species
Figure (2) Page 576
Sea lamprey
(attached to lake trout)
Argentina fire ant
Brown tree snake
Eurasian muffle
Common pigeon
(Rock dove)
Formosan termite
Zebra mussel
Asian long-horned
beetle
Asian tiger mosquito
Gypsy moth larvae
Accidentally Introduced Species

44. Kudzu
Vine

45. INVASIVE SPECIES
The Argentina fire ant was introduced to Mobile, Alabama in 1932 from South America.
Most probably from ships.
No natural predators.

46. Expansion of the fire ant in southern states.
1918
Expansion of the fire ant in southern states.
2000

47. Ecosystems Vulnerable
Characteristics of
Successful
Invader Species
High reproductive rate, short generation time (r-selected species)
Pioneer species
Long lived
High dispersal rate
Release growth- inhibiting chemicals into soil
Generalists
High genetic variability
Ecosystems Vulnerable
to Invader Species
Similar climate to habitat of invader
Absence of predators on invading species
Early successional species
Low diversity of native species
Absence of fire
Disturbed by human activities

49. HIPPO Habitat loss Habitat degradation Overfishing Basic Causes
Introducing
nonnative
species
Climate
change
Population growth
Rising resource use
No environmental accounting
Poverty
Commercial
hunting
and
poaching
Pollution
Sale of
exotic pets
and
decorative
plants
Predator
and
pest control
HIPPO

50. Extinction from hunting and poaching

51. Ivory

53. International trade in wild plants and animals
Live mountain gorilla ($150,000)
Panda pelt ($100,000)
Chimpanzee ($50,000)
Imperial Amazon Macaw ($30,000)
Rhino horn ($13,000 per pound)
As commercially valuable species become endangered, the black market demand soars

54. Other Extinction Threats
Predators and Pest Control
Gray Wolf
Carolina parakeet
Prairie dog
Market for Exotic Pets and Decorative Plants
Climate Change
Alters wildlife habitats
Not enough time to adapt

55. Protecting Wild Species
Research Approach
Bioinformatics
Building computer databases
Developing computer tool to find, visualize and analyze information
Communicating information

56. Protecting Wild Species
Legal Approach
International Treaties
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES)
Forbids trade of 900 different live specimens or wildlife products
Restricts trade of 29,000 other threatened species
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
Legally binds signatory governments to reversing the global decline in biodiversity

57. Protecting Wild Species
Legal Approach
The Lacy Act of 1900
Prohibits movement of live or dead wild animals across state lines w/o a permit
The Endangered Species Act of 1973
Illegal for Americans to import or trade in any product made from an endangered species

58. Endangered Species Act
National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS)
Identify and list endangered ocean species
US Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS)
Identify and list all other endangered or threatened species
Species cannot be hunted, killed, collected, or injured in the US
1250 species listed today
Designate and protect the critical habitat
Private lands subject to restrictions
Prepare a recovery plan

59. Concentration of rare species2 4 3 5
Top Six Hot Spots
1 Hawaii
2 San Francisco Bay area
3 Southern Appalachians
4 Death Valley
5 Southern California
6 Florida Panhandle 6
Concentration of rare species 1
Low
Moderate
High

60. Sanctuary Approach to Protecting Wild Species
Wildlife Refuges and Other Protected Areas
Gene Bank, Botanical Gardens, and Farms
Zoos and Aquariums
Captive breeding
Cloning

61. The U.S. has set aside 544 federal refuges for wildlife, but many refuges are suffering from environmental degradation.
Pelican Island was the nation’s first wildlife refuge.

62. Gene banks, botanical gardens and using farms to raise threatened plant species can help prevent extinction, but these options lack funding and storage space.
Zoos and aquariums can help protect endangered animal species by preserving some individuals with the long-term goal of reintroduction, but suffer from lack of space and money.
captive breeding
cloning

63. RECONCILIATION ECOLOGY
Reconciliation ecology involves finding ways to share places we dominate with other species.
Replacing monoculture grasses with native species.
Maintaining habitats for insect eating bats can keep down unwanted insects.
Reduction and elimination of pesticides to protect non-target organisms (such as vital insect pollinators).

64. Using Reconciliation Ecology to Protect Bluebirds
Putting up bluebird boxes with holes too small for (nonnative) competitors in areas where trees have been cut down have helped reestablish populations.

65. What Can You Do? Protecting Species
• Do not buy furs, ivory products, and other materials made from endangered or threatened animal species.
• Do not buy wood and paper products produced by cutting remaining old-growth forests in the tropics.
• Do not buy birds, snakes, turtles, tropical fish, and other animals that are taken from the wild.
• Do not buy orchids, cacti, and other plants that are taken from the wild.
• Spread the word. Talk to your friends and relatives about this problem and what they can do about it.
Figure 11.21
Individuals matter: ways to help premature extinction of species. QUESTIONS: Which two of these actions do you think are the most important? Which of these actions do you plan to take?

66. Wildlife Management
Manipulating wildlife populations and their habitats for their welfare and for human benefit.
enacting hunting and fishing laws
establishing harvest quotas
implementing population management programs
improving wildlife habitat
using international treaties to protect migrating game species such as waterfowl.

67. North American-South
American flyways
European-African
flyways
Asian flyways