2. Ways of Knowing Ethnographies have always been written in the context of historical changes: the formation of state systems and the evolution of a world political economy (Marcus 1986: 165)

3. Objectives The links between theoretical paradigms and ethnographic methodology The historical evolution of ethnography as a method of inquiry and as a way of writing

4. Representations could be: Linguistic Figurative Theoretical

5. Kinds of Representations Similar Metonymic (part for the whole)

6. The Crisis of Representation A critique of Western thought

7. Orientalism, Edward Said (1977) A critique of the Western system of representation

8. Orientalism signifies a system of representations framed by political forces that brought the Orient into Western learning, Western consciousness, and Western empire. The Orient exists for the West, and is constructed by and in relation to the West. It is a mirror image of what is inferior and alien ("Other") to the West.

9. System of Representation Predicated on: Rhetorical devices ---colonialism as a rhetorical exercise in power ---Imperialism: the history of the Orient

10. Anthropological contributions to the Western Mentality Literary texts: objectification Image: the exotic Theories: development, evolution

11. Writing Culture: the Poetics and Politics of Ethnography (1986) Clifford and Marcus Crisis of representation (in anthropology)has brought about a challenge to anthop authority 2: the process of represntation is now: contingent, historical and contestable

12. Anthropological Responses Reflexivity --acknowledgment of the role of subjectivity Experimental strategies --change forms (monovocal to polyvocal) Recognition of global and economic realities --colonialism --neo-colonialism, etc.

13. After Writing Culture…(1997) James, Hockey and Dawson Help us --inform the practice --look at new ways (styles) --pay close attention (epistemology)

14. Today’s Dilemmas The humanist nature of representational practices The difficulty of uncovering whose representations and by whom Problem of form Politics and ethics of representations

15. The humanist nature of representational practices

16. The difficulty of uncovering whose representations and by whom

17. Problems of form

18. Politics and ethics of representations

19. Van Maanen: Tales of the Field (1988) Realist forms: dispassionate third person, objective, finding truth Confessional forms: reflexive nature of ethnography Impressionist forms: capturing special moment

20. Discussion questions Why do we represent certain things in culture and avoid others?

21. What are the criteria we use to select some aspects of a culture and ignore others?

22. How do we select and why?