Writing Research Papers: PY4007/PY4008 Physiotherapy Project 1 & 2

Writing Research Papers: PY4007/PY4008 Physiotherapy Project 1 & 2
Íde O’Sullivan and Lawrence Cleary Regional Writing Centre

Regional Writing Centre
Workshop outline Reflection: Writing for publication Motivation and time management Key consideration: The writing process The rhetorical situation Structuring your FYP/research paper Academic writing style Strategies to develop writing: Peer review Regional Writing Centre

Reflection Why write for publication? Implications of publishing/not publishing? Misconceptions about writing and publication Common problems among new writers New writers’ worries/fears Through writing we develop our thinking/clarify our thoughts Boardmann (2007) Common problems among new writers: Writing too much about the problem Overstating the problem Overworking the critique of other authors Losing focus Putting too many ideas in one piece of work Physiotherapy aims to publish original research and facilitate continuing professional development for physiotherapists and other health professions worldwide. Dedicated to the advancement of physiotherapy through publication of research and scholarly work concerned with, but not limited to, its scientific basis and clinical application, education of practitioners, management of services and policy. We are pleased to receive articles reporting original scientific research, critical reviews (meta-analysis, systematic or narrative reviews), educational, theoretical or debate articles, brief reports, statistical compilations, case histories or single case studies. All papers should demonstrate methodological rigour. Regional Writing Centre

New writers’ errors (Murray, 2005:4)
“Writing too much about ‘the problem’.” “Overstating the problem and claiming too much for their solution.” “Overstating the critique of others’ work.” “Not saying what they mean, losing focus through indirect writing.” “Putting too many ideas in one paper.” What do the reviewers say? Dealing with the reviewers’ comments? Respond to the editor. Your intention / deadlines / what you will deal with / anything beyond the scope. Regional Writing Centre

Difficulties associated with writing
Anxiety and fear of writing Lack of confidence and motivation Cracking the codes of academic writing Getting started Lack of guidance, practice and feedback Misconceptions of writing Good writing skills are innate X Think first, then write X The writing process is recursive Regional Writing Centre

Getting Started Writing and Keeping Going
Dealing with fatigue, boredom and lack of momentum What motivates/demotivates you when it comes to a writing task? Fears and anxieties?

It is not too late Take stock of where you are now Outline your research project Make plans based on the time that is left Organise your time accordingly Get writing Keep writing Get a writing buddy Allow time for revision and to put it all together Let family and friends know Be selfish with your time Regional Writing Centre

Where am I? What writing have you done for the research project, and what writing do you need to do in order to complete your FYP on time? Keep writing non-stop for 5 minutes. Write in sentences. Do not edit or censor your writing. Private writing -- no one will read it. Discuss what you have written in pairs. Freewriting – Getting started What impact did the previous exercise have on you? How might this type of writing activity be useful? Regional Writing Centre

Outlining (Murray, 2006) Title and draft introduction Level 1 outlining Main headings Level 2 outlining Sub-headings Level 3 outlining Decide on content Define your writing tasks Ordering your ideas Aligning your outline with your summary Set goals for writing Checks coherence of your argument Imposes appropriate word limits Decide on content Write your outline in sentences: The aim of this section is………” Set word limit for sections and sub-sections “Defining writing tasks first may make it easier to find time slots for them” (Murray). Regional Writing Centre

‘Writing in layers’ (Murray 2006: 125-27)
Outline the structure: write your section heading for the research paper. Write a sentence or two on the contents of each section. List out sub-headings for each section. Write an introductory paragraph for each section. At the top of each section, write the word count requirement, draft number and date. Define your writing tasks Ordering your ideas Aligning your outline with your summary Set goals for writing Checks coherence of your argument Imposes appropriate word limits Decide on content Write your outline in sentences: The aim of this section is………” Set word limit for sections and sub-sections “Defining writing tasks first may make it easier to find time slots for them” (Murray). Regional Writing Centre

Writing goals Outline Words/Timeframe Title Chapter 1 (title) Section 1 (title) Section 2 (title) Section 3 (title) Chapter 2 (title) Chapter 3 … … … Regional Writing Centre

Keep writing Where and when do you write? Why are you not writing? “I don’t feel ready to write.” Writers’ block Getting unstuck Writing to prompts/freewriting (write anything) Set writing goals Write regularly Integrate writing into your thinking Break it down into a manageable process Weekly timetable – Map your time – Be realistic! – Develop a regular pattern! Dealing with issues of time “Binge” and “snack” writing (Murray, 2005) Do I need a big block of time to write productively? “Short bursts of productive writing” (Murray and Moore, 2006:17) Regional Writing Centre

Keep writing Be patient Be creative Taking pleasure in writing Be proud of your writing Get stuck in Writing can be a positive and enjoyable experience Get stuck in Regional Writing Centre

Key Considerations

Key stages in the process
Pre-writing Drafting Revision Editing and Proofreading One way to divide up the stages that one goes through is as presented here. A Reiterative Process Understanding the essay question and the instructions is one part of the planning process: What are some other tasks performed in this stage? ...In the Drafting stage? ...in the Revision stage? Brainstorming Mind maps Research Reading/note-taking – the importance of referencing properly Researching to find the truth, not just someone who agrees with you. Planning and organising your essay Getting started Structuring your essays (paragraphing) Developing an argument The importance of evidence/theories/data Drafting and redrafting your essay Editing and proofreading your essay Simple plan – introduction, middle, end Regional Writing Centre

The rhetorical situation
Occasion Topic Audience Purpose Writer Occasion: Time / Space restrictions. How much time, how many words, in what form? Audience: Expectations: stylistic conventions, formatting issues, academic rigor? Discourse community. Topic: What do I already know; what do I need to know? How do I discover? Purpose: Express my feelings, inform, persuade? Academic persuasion. Writer: What are my strengths and weaknesses? What is my experience with academic writing? What strategies have I developed? What criteria do I use to self-evaluate how well I am doing? Are my strategies working? What emotional response do I have to assigned writing tasks? Regional Writing Centre 16

Organising principles
Research question Thesis Hypothesis Regional Writing Centre 17

Key tasks for academic writers
Participating in academic conversations Developing and advancing balanced arguments Exploring your personal writing process Developing strategies that work for you Essay question is an invitation to participate in an already ongoing discussion Regional Writing Centre 18

The process: Pre-writing
Decide on the writing project Choose a target journal Get information about the journal Mission/vision of the journal Identify categories of submission Identify key subject areas Analyse the journal Select a sample paper from the target journal Follow the guidelines for authors Guidelines for authors Categories of submission Preparation of the manuscript Copyright Ethics Layout Presentation Submission of the manuscript The review process Editorial process Editorial decisions Regional Writing Centre

Analysing the journal Cracking the codes Analysing the genre/text and modelling Generate a list of the important criteria which will make your writing more effective Ask yourself the following questions: How is the paper structured? How is the contribution articulated? What level of context is provided? What level of detail is used? How long are the different sections? Regional Writing Centre

Analysing the journal What organisational features/patterns are in evidence? How are arguments and counterarguments presented and structured? What types of evidence are important? What stylistic features are prominent? Is the text cohesive? How does the author achieve such cohesion? What kind(s) of persuasive devises does the author employ? Voice? Regional Writing Centre

Structuring your FYP Keep in mind the assignment question, any questions you need to answer in order to answer the assignment question, and the instruction word as you plan your essay. From beginning to end, the point of order is the initial question, claim or hypothesis. Do not “write down all you know about…”

Organising principles
Thesis Research question Hypothesis Regional Writing Centre 23

FYP Presentation and Layout
Preliminaries Main Text End Matter A major report or thesis is generally divided into three parts. The materials included in each section are usually set by the particular college or department to whom the report is submitted. For FYP students who are submitting to the Languages and Cultural Studies Department, the material to be contained in each part is assigned by the College of Humanities and can be found in the Final Year Project Booklet for the Class of The only difference between the printed version and that posted online ( is that the printed version requires students to include an Option title on the cover page. Regional Writing Centre

Preliminaries Cover page Title page Author’s Declaration Table of Contents Acknowledgements Abstract Regional Writing Centre

Abstract Abstract (250 words) Background Objectives Methods Results Conclusions Keywords Regional Writing Centre

The manuscript Introduction Background and context/Literature review Method Results Discussion Conclusions Student Guidelines/Learning outcomes Justify the methodology used to answer the research question Analyse the data collected as part of their Final Year Project (FYP) using appropriate methods for that data type Relate their research question and findings to existing literature on the topic Interpret the results and discuss the implications of their findings Outline the limitations of their piece of research and make recommendations for future research in the area. Demonstrate a professional and ethical attitude to the conduction of the research project Collect data from the population of interest using an appropriate methodology Regional Writing Centre

The introduction In academic writing, an introduction, or opening, has four purposes: To introduce the topic of the paper To indicate the context of the conversation through background information To give some indication of the overall plan of the paper To catch the reader’s attention, usually by convincing the reader of its relevance. This idea of ‘context’ and ‘relevance’ is important. Too often a student tries to foist some inappropriate idea of relevance onto the reader. If a student is well versed in the discourse of her area of study, then she’ll know what is relevant to these readers. And to say something is relevant because it is important is just begging the question. Too often students use logical fallacies to foist relevance onto a reader. Advice: get involved in the discussion. Regional Writing Centre

What should I put into the introduction?
Identify the domain and the topic State the problem - claim, hypothesis, or question - to be investigated Gives the problem context and significance within the research community Identify the gaps in the literature Outline and justify the purpose of your proposed study State the objectives of the paper and outline the plan May delineate the scope of the research You should tell reader what to expect and look for Regional Writing Centre

Methodology and research design
In the methodology section, two main issues are addressed: The methods used to gather data The methods used to analyse the data How were your results obtained and how did you came to the conclusions put forth? The reader needs to get the complete picture of what you have done in order to obtain your results and arrive at your conclusions. In your Research Proposal Sample, you have Section C, Research Design and Data Collection Plan (450 words), and D, Proposed Analysis and Presentation Techniques (ca. 100 words). The Research Design section, C, asks What research method will I use and why? And wants you to explain your procedure, identifying any practical issues. It asks that you give details of your proposed sample and how you are going to access it. The section on the proposed analysis, section D, asks simply how you plan to analyze the data once you have it and how you intend to present your findings. Regional Writing Centre

Justification Why and how did you choose the targeted population/sample? Why did you choose the particular method? Is the methodology appropriate to your field of study? Is the methodology appropriate to the objectives of the study? What did you do? Why did you do it? What happened? Research notes/diary Audience Voice Tense Regional Writing Centre

Justification Methods affect results Methods affect validity and reliability Methods affect conclusions Your methodology must be flawless It must be presented thoroughly and concisely Regional Writing Centre

Results and discussion
The results section must not only present the results; it must make the results meaningful for the reader. The discussion should not simply provide more detail about the results; it should interpret and explain the results. Methods of organising the results and discussion. Regional Writing Centre

Results Organising the results Readability Accessibility (graphs, tables) Use of appendices for raw data Making the results meaningful Explanation Simplification Trends Significant results Relationships/correlations The method of organisation of the results and discussion will depend on the quantity and type of results. Regional Writing Centre

Discussion Organising the discussion Summarise the main results in order to remind the reader of your key findings. Put the results of the research into context. Support the validity of the results by referring to similar results. Explain the differences between your findings and that of previous researchers. Can you explain the unexpected results? Explain the results Compare with research that emerged in the literature review but do not repeat the literature review. Regional Writing Centre

Conclusion To what extend have the aims of the study been achieved? How has your primary and secondary research helped answer the research question posed? Have your hypotheses been proved/disproved/partially proved? Did the study raise any further questions? Any recommendations for future research? Questions addressed in the conclusion Make the case for your contribution Here you must foreground your own research (Murray, 2006) Regional Writing Centre

Elements of a good conclusion
A summary of the investigation, the results, and the analysis A summary of the conclusions drawn from the analysis and discussion of the data / results An account of whether the research has answered the research question An assessment of whether the hypothesis or claim has been proved, disproved, or partially proved Regional Writing Centre

Elements of a good conclusion
A discussionion of the implications of the findings A demonstrable awareness of the limitations of the outcome Suggestions for future developments – Remember: A summary alone of what you have done is a weak conclusion A final, strong, positive statement Regional Writing Centre

Flow Logical method of development Effective transition signals Good signposting Consistent point of view Conciseness (careful word choice) Clarity of expression Paragraph structure Unity Coherence Clarity of expression Avoid repetition of words Avoid repetition of ideas Delete redundant words Be direct: avoid using too many words Avoid ambiguity Avoid unclear pronoun reference Choose strong active verbs Use parallel constructions Regional Writing Centre

Paragraph structure What is a paragraph? Series of sentences Coherent (introduction, middle, end) Common theme Paragraphs signal the logically organised progression of ideas. The flow of information should be organised around themes and comments. The main idea in one paragraph should flow logically into the next. Shifts in the argument or changes in direction should be accurately signalled using appropriate adverbials, conjunctions, and prepositions. Chapters or sections are divided into paragraphs in a meaningful way. Paragraphing Use vs non-use Coherent vs incoherent Cohesive vs incohesive Unified vs Disjointed Regional Writing Centre

Paragraph structure Just as an essay is guided by a thesis statement, a paragraph is organised around its topic sentence. A topic sentence informs the reader of the topic to be discussed. A topic sentence contains controlling ideas which limit the scope of the discussion to ideas that are manageable in a paragraph. An example would be: ‘Gold, a precious metal, is prized for two important characteristics’ (Oshima and Hogue, 1999: 17). The topic is ‘gold’. The unnamed ‘important characteristics’ control the scope of the paragraph. Only these two characteristics will be talked about in this paragraph. Controlling ideas must be able to be spoken of in a single paragraph. If a writer thinks that she needs more than a paragraph to talk about either one of these characteristics, then she should reframe the controlling idea in her topic sentence. Regional Writing Centre

Paragraph structure: Supporting sentences
The sentences that follow expand upon the topic, using controlling ideas to limit the discussion. The main idea is supported by Evidence in the form of facts, statistics, theoretical probabilities, reputable, educated opinions, Illustrations in the form of examples and extended examples, and Argumentation based on the evidence presented. Qualifying statements indicate the limitations of the support or argument. Regional Writing Centre

Paragraph structure: Concluding sentences
Not every paragraph needs a concluding sentence. Concluding sentences can either comment on the information in the text, or They can paraphrase the topic sentence. Regional Writing Centre

Paragraph structure: Unity
Paragraphs should be unified. ‘Unity means that only one main idea is discussed in a paragraph. The main idea is stated in the topic sentence, and then each and every supporting sentence develops that idea’ (Oshima and Hogue 1999, p.18). Basically, ‘unity’ demands that digressions are kept to a minimum. ‘Coherence’ addresses a lot of issues, but the instructor can think of her own experiences with some of the papers she’s received. The biggest offence is usually pronoun references that haven’t any recognisable antecedent. What the hell is that? Good practices that aid in text coherence are: repetition of key nouns. Nouns are referential. Repetition can be boring, but that’s where a good thesaurus comes in. Use of consistent pronouns. Students should be aware that person or number shifts are confusing. They shouldn’t be changing ‘from you to he or she (change of person), or from he to they (change of number)’ (Oshima and Hogue, 1999: 42). Lastly, good use of transition signals (next slide) makes for an easier read. Regional Writing Centre

Paragraph structure: Coherence
Coherence means that your paragraph is easy to read and understand because your supporting sentences are in some kind of logical order your ideas are connected by the use of appropriate transition signals your pronoun references clearly point to the intended antecedent and is consistent you have repeated or substituted key nouns (Oshima and Hogue 2006, p.22) Show the connections and relationships between arguments so that sentences flow smoothly. Logical and smooth movement from one sentence to the next. Regional Writing Centre

Example: (Meei-Fang et al. 2007, p.471)
People with dementia are particularly vulnerable to malnutrition: they have a decreased ability to understand directions and to express their needs verbally, are easily distracted from eating, prone to become agitated, and may use utensils incorrectly. Inability to feed oneself (eating dependency) is a major risk factor for malnutrition among older people living in long-term care settings (Abbasi & Rudman 1994, Durnbaugh et al. 1996). When people with dementia can no longer take food voluntarily, assistance is required although, as the disease progresses, even taking food with assistance can become difficult and, in some instances, tube-feeding may be required to supply nutrition. This form of feeding can, however, cause distress and anxiety, not only for the person being fed, but also for caregivers (Akerlund & Norberg 1985, Burgener & Shimer 1993). Regional Writing Centre

Academic Writing Style

Features of academic writing
Complexity Formality Precision Objectivity Explicitness Accuracy Hedging Responsibility (Gillet, 2008) Click on title of slide for link to UEFAP.com. Go to “Writing” and then “Features” to go through in detail some of the features of academic writing. Discuss as a class. Have students open up an academic document from the databases (one preferably in their field). Try to get students to give you examples from that text of complex language, formal expressions, linguistic realisations of objectivity, explicit statements versus implied meaning, hedges, expressions of accuracy, and citations or identifications of sources of information. Good writers model writers they admire. That is not the same as copying them. It means using their linguistic and rhetorical strategies. What are some other features? Precision and accuracy seem the counterpoints of hedging, but hedging is about the expression of degrees of certainty, whereas the other two are about accurate representation of reality, which may involve the accurate representation of the degree to which something is true. Regional Writing Centre 48

Academic writing style
Hedge. Distinguish between absolutes and probabilities. Absolutes are 100% certain. Probabilities are less than 100% certain. Be responsible. Provide traceable evidence and justifications for any claims you make or any opinions you have formed as a result of your research. Regional Writing Centre

Persuasion and truth in academic writing
Because they are argumentative, academic writing tends to be persuasive. An argument should be persuasive, but don’t sacrifice truth in favour of persuasion. Academic inquiry is a truth-seeking pursuit. facts are distinguished from opinions. relative truths are distinguished from absolute truths. The integrity of the conclusions reached in an academic essay or report is based on its honest pursuit of truth. Expository writing emphasizes the topic. It focuses on facts and ideas. Persuasive writing emphasizes the reader. This type of writing focuses on changing the reader’s mind or moving the reader to action. However, academic writing never sacrifices truth in its effort to persuade. Claims are qualified. Regional Writing Centre

Strategies to Develop Writing: Peer Review

Writing a ‘page 98 paper’ My research question is … Researchers who have looked at this subject are … They argue that … Debate centres on the issue of … There is work to be done on … My research is closest to that of X in that … My contribution will be … (Murray 2006:104) Early: to establish direction/focus Associate your project with the literature Distinguish your project from the literature Build on research question/hypothesis Focus reading/thinking Manageable writing task: 325 words To develop thinking about your thesis thesis? Late: to focus thinking as you draft conclusion and revise your introduction (Murray, 2006: 105) Regional Writing Centre

Dialogue about writing
Peer-review Generative writing The “writing sandwich” (Murray, 2005:85): writing, talking, writing Writing “buddies” (Murray and Moore, 2006:102) Writers’ groups Engaging in critiques of one another’s work allows you to become effective critics of your own work. Regional Writing Centre

Revision, Editing and Proofreading

Revising (Global) Global issues (organisation and structure): Does the text achieve your writing goals as established in your evaluation of the rhetorical situation (writing context) and by your thesis? Is there deviation, wander and digression? Does each paragraph treat in a controlled manner an identifiable idea, and does that idea follow logically the ideas expressed in previous paragraphs and do they allow readers to predict the ideas expressed in the paragraphs that follow? Regional Writing Centre 55

Revising (Global) “If the process of writing has changed your views, consider rethinking the thesis and reworking the paper” (Ebest et al. 2004:14). How does the introduction fit in with the body of the paper? Did you address what you said you would address? Did you fulfil your promises? Does your conclusion take into account the discoveries made during your research and writing processes. Strategy: Outline your paper, now that you have finished it. Regional Writing Centre 56

Revising (Local) Local issues (editing and proofreading): Look at logical and grammatical relations as expressed within paragraph boundaries. Is the relationship between pronouns and noun substitutes and the things they represent clear? Verbs express relationships of time and indicate person, number and mood. Are those relationships consistent and appropriate? Regional Writing Centre 57

Revising (Local) Is information logically arranged, and is the organisation of your text clear? Does each paragraph have a topic sentence and is the paragraph cogent, coherent and unified? Do your sentences express complete ideas, and do you vary your structures? Are they grammatical? What about the mechanics? Regional Writing Centre 58

Checklists and Feedback
Before flying, pilots go through a methodical check of their plane. Do you have a checklist for your assignments before you hand them in? How can you anticipate problems that you are unable to see? Get a peer to help. Ask for the feedback that you need and that is appropriate to the context. Regional Writing Centre 59

Revising (Peer review)
For example, this is an argumentative paper: “Were you convinced by my argument? Why? Or why not?” I know I write poor introductions: “Could you identify my thesis?” Or “...could you tell me how the introduction attempts to grab the reader’s interest?” I know that my sentences tend to be long and difficult to understand: “Could you read my paper aloud so that I can listen to it and mark where you are having difficulties in reading?” Regional Writing Centre 60

Tips for editing Set it aside for a few days and come back with a fresh eye Get someone else to proofread it as well as you Use the print preview button to check layout before you print Always proofread on hardcopy Hold paper below the line you are proofreading Use the find button to make changes Be consistent!! Editing a reference list is separate Regional Writing Centre

Editing a reference list
Check that in-text dates and page numbers match reference list Only enter names in reference list that you have mentioned in your text – it’s not a bibliography Make sure that if a name is mentioned in the document that is in included in the reference list Do a separate edit of your reference list, checking everything matches, everything is included and it is consistent Regional Writing Centre

Common errors Consistency of layout Spelling, punctuation and grammar Syntax Correct font and spacing Word or letter substitution Transposition of letters Omission of a line or lines, which does not outwardly affect the meaning Check finished work with original Dates, proper names and place names, and figures Complete labelling of diagrams, tables, graphs, etc Regional Writing Centre

WHO: Top 10 reasons for rejecting a manuscript
Content of the paper not suitable for an international journal of public health. Design of the study not appropriate for the question asked. Lack of novelty and or timeliness. Lack of either or both ethical committee approval and informed consent. Lack of an appropriate search strategy. Conclusions not justified by the results. Lack of a feedback step in descriptions of audit. Insufficient sample size. Lack of a clear message to the public health community. Secondary analyses of demographic surveys or simple prevalence studies that are difficult to generalise. Regional Writing Centre

Resources Shannon Consortium Regional Writing Centre, UL Using English for Academic Purposes The Writer’s Garden cyberlyber.com/writermain.htm The OWL at Purdue The Writing Center at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill /wcweb/handouts/index.html Handout Regional Writing Centre 66

Works cited Elbow, P. (1998) Writing without Teachers (2nd edition). New York: Oxford University Press. Elbow, P. and Belanoff, P. (2003) Being a Writer: A Community of Writers Revisited. New York: McGraw-Hill. Moore, S. and Murphy, M. (2005) How to be a Student: 100 Great Ideas and Practical Hints for Students Everywhere. UK: Open University Press. Murray, R. (2005) Writing for Academic Journals. UK: Open University Press. Murray, R. (2006) How to Write a Thesis (2nd edition). UK: Open University Press. Murray, R. and Moore, S. (2006) The Handbook of Academic Writing: A Fresh Approach. UK: Open University Press. Oshima, A. and Hogue, A. (2006) Writing Academic English, 4th edition. New York: Pearson Education. Regional Writing Centre

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