1. The Chemical Context of Life

2. How Did Life Originate? Understanding what life is and how it originated from non-living matter requires some understanding of basic chemistry

3. In Terms of How They Function, Living Things Are Literally Biochemical Machines

4. So why do atoms interact? How do they interact?

5. Chemical behavior results from two tendencies of atoms: Atoms tend to fill their outer electron shells …the Octet Rule Atoms interact with other atoms in ways that cancel electrostatic charges (+ and - charges)

6. There are 92 kinds of atoms in nature, called elements. Each element has a characteristic set of protons, neutrons, and electrons (indicated by the atomic number in each block).

7. Electrons are distributed in concentric regions outside the nucleus called electron shells. Each electron shell has a limited capacity, as shown by the numbers below: An atom’s inner shells fill first because negatively charged electrons are attracted to the positively charged nucleus nucleus 22 88 88 88

8. He 2 Ne 2+8 = 10 Ar 2+8+8 = 18 Kr 2+8+8+8 = 26 22 88 88 88 Atoms whose outer shells are filled because they have just the right number of electrons will be stable and not interact with other atoms. These are called the inert elements, or noble gases. nucleus

9. Inert elements Non-inert elements will interact with one another in ways that fill their outer electron shells or cancel charges

10. For example, consider the two smallest elements: hydrogen (1) and helium (2). (a) Hydrogen atoms have an unfilled shell and will interact with other atoms in ways that fill the shell. (b) Helium atoms are non-reactive (and therefore solitary) because their only (and therefore outer) electron shell is filled to capacity.

11. Kinds of Attractions Among Atoms Ionic Bonds (attraction between oppositely charged ions) Covalent Bonds (sharing electrons to fill outer shells), two kinds: ÙNon-polar Covalent Bonds (electrons shared equally by identical or very similar atoms, so no partial charges are produced) ÙPolar Covalent Bonds (electrons shared unequally by different kinds of atoms, producing + and - partial charges in participating atoms) Hydrogen Bonds (attraction between partially charged atoms that are also involved in a polar covalent bonds with additional atoms) Van der Waals attractions (attraction between atoms that induce transient, opposite, partial charges in one another) Hydrophyllic (water loving) and Hydrophobic (water hating) Influences (charged regions of molecules are attracted to water molecules, whereas uncharged regions are repelled from watery environments)

12. Ionic Bonds

13. Ionic Bonds, e.g., sodium (Na, 11) and chlorine (Cl, 17) unfilled outer shell, almost empty uncharged atom unfilled outer shell, almost full uncharged atom lost an electron has a filled outer shell charged ion stole an electron has a filled outer shell charged ion Na + SALT: outer shells filled charges cancelled stable now Ionization: transfer of electron creates ions Ionic Bond 11 p + 11 n 11 e - 11 p + 11 n 11 e - 17 p + 17 n 17 e - 17 p + 17 n 17 e - 11 p + 11 n 10 e - 11 p + 11 n 10 e - 17 p + 17 n 18 e - 17 p + 17 n 18 e - Cl - Na Cl NaCl

15. outer shells almost empty cations (+) form outer shells almost full anions (-) form

17. Covalent Bonds

18. A hydrogen atom (H) with 1 electron An unfilled outer electron shell; capacity of 2 electrons

19. A hydrogen Molecule (H 2 ) A non-polar covalent bond: 2 equally shared electrons The electrons are shared equally because the two atoms are identical and therefore have the same ability to attract electrons (electronegativity)

20. A hydrogen Molecule (H 2 ) Because the electrons are shared equally, the positive charges of each nucleus are cancelled out by the electrons. Therefore hydrogen molecules are uncharged or non-polar.

21. The Hindenberg Disaster Reactive versus Invert Gasses

24. Oxygen Molecule: O 2 Unshared electrons in atomic orbitals Shared electrons in molecular orbitals Shared electrons orbit both atoms, although they are sometimes diagrammed as if they were between nucleus

25. Atoms that are 2 or more electrons short of a filled outer shell are likely to fill the shell by sharing electrons from other atoms, forming covalent bonds. Carbon has 4 electrons in its outer shell, needing 4 more Oxygen has 6 electrons in its outer shell, needing 2 more

26. Numbers of Covalent Bonds an Atom Can Form Atom Hydrogen Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Phosphorus Sulfur Atomic number 1 6 7 8 15 16 Capacity of outer shell 2 8 Electrons in outer shell 1 4 5 6 5 6 Number of covalent bonds 1 4 3 2 3 2 P P P

27. Polar Covalent Bonds

28. Polar Covalent Bonds: Water HH O H2OH2O Atoms with different electronegativities share electrons unequally. The more electronegative atom gets more than its fair share of the electron’s time and therefore has a slightly negative charge. The other atom will have a partial + charge because it gets less of the electron’s time than is required to cancel the positive charges in its nucleus.

30. Hydrogen Bonds

31. Hydrogen Bonds: Attraction between oppositely charged atoms engaged in polar covalent bonding with other atoms water tension: numerous hydrogen bonds can be very strong

33. Van der Waals Interactions

34. + - - + + - Electrons are constantly on the move, mostly in random directions around the atom’s nucleus. Even when the number of electrons equals the number of protons, there will be brief events where an atom’s electrons tend to be bunched together a little. This leaves one side of those atoms + charged and the other - charged until the electrons spread out again. 3 charged atoms (“dipoles”)

35. Van der Waals Interactions + - - + - + - + (a) as two dipoles approach one another... (b) their electron clouds interact (opposite charges repel) and the two atoms face each other with opposite charges. +-+- (c) now they attract each other

36. Van der Waals Interactions The two atoms will attract one another until their electron clouds begin to overlap and repel the two atoms …which remain suspended at a distance where attraction and repulsion are balanced

37. Van der Waals Interactions Van der Walls interactions are very weak. The movement of atoms at room temperature breaks them apart almost immediately, except... Biological molecules that interact often have complementary shapes, which brings large numbers of atoms into position for Van der Waals interaction …the cumulative effect of which is very strong

38. Hydrophyllic/Hydrophobic Interactions Many molecules have polar (charges) and non-polar (uncharged) regions. The polar regions tend to orient toward the water that the molecule is suspended in, whereas the no-polar parts fold up within the interior of the molecules, hidden from water.