1. Experiences with language in (central) Europe: citizenship and belonging Patrick Stevenson Centre for Transnational Studies University of Southampton

2. Introduction Conference themes: where do linguists come in? Linguistic nationalism then and now. ‘National languages’ and multilingual Europe. Language questions within and across national borders.

3. Structure 1 Problematising ‘language’ and European discourses on multilingualism 2 Implications for researching language: a sociolinguistics of globalisation 3 A selective survey of current research projects 4 The German language and the future of Europe 5 Conclusions: the relevance of ‘language’ to nationalism and national identities

4. Problematising ‘language’ and European discourses on multilingualism Conceptual fuzziness of ‘language’. ‘Languages’ as European invention. Convenient myths of linguistic homogeneity. Advantages: inclusion and exclusion mutual legitimisation of linguistic and national boundaries

5. Problematising ‘language’ and European discourses on multilingualism Problems: Language names as portmanteau terms Scope of ‘languages’ arbitrary and contingent Status as ‘language’ not natural but ascribed Preference therefore for ‘linguistic varieties’ and ‘linguistic practices’, including metalinguistic practices.

6. Problematising ‘language’ and European discourses on multilingualism Discrete, hierarchically ordered languages – enduring European language ideology. Privileged status of ‘national languages’ in multilingual states. The EU and the multilingual mantra.

7. Problematising ‘language’ and European discourses on multilingualism Commissioner Orban (April 2007): ‘Multilingualism has been, from the very beginning, part of the genetic code of the European Union’. Framework Strategy for Multilingualism (2005): [target for] ‘every citizen [to have] practical skills in at least two languages in addition to his or her mother tongue’.

8. Problematising ‘language’ and European discourses on multilingualism Eurobarometer Special Report 243 (2006) Europeans and Their Languages: 99% of Luxembourgers 29% of Hungarians ‘can participate in a conversation in another language than their mother tongue’. Monolingualism as natural condition.

9. Problematising ‘language’ and European discourses on multilingualism Framework Strategy: places responsibility for developing policy with Member States; calls for ‘national plans to give coherence and direction to actions to promote multilingualism’ and concedes that ‘the teaching of regional and minority languages should be taken into account as appropriate’, alongside ‘opportunities for migrants to learn the language of the host country (and the teaching of migrant languages)’.

10. Problematising ‘language’ and European discourses on multilingualism Commissioner for Multilingualism’s ‘political agenda for multilingualism’: key objectives include ‘providing access to online information services and EU legislation to citizens in their own languages’. What seem to be the implications here?

11. Problematising ‘language’ and European discourses on multilingualism 1 state – 1 language (or maybe 2); ‘migrant languages’ are not ‘languages of the host countries’; unequal evaluation of multilingual competence; M + 2 = official national languages; citizens identified with these languages.

12. Problematising ‘language’ and European discourses on multilingualism Language policies and political discourses on language perpetuate the monolingual habitus of multilingual societies in Europe (after Gogolin); ‘the continuing power of standardising, national regimes that are reinforced – sometimes at regional scales – despite or because of European supranational agencies’ (Gal)

13. Implications for researching language: a sociolinguistics of globalisation What are the important questions? What kinds of methods are adequate for the task? Questions about language policy: different levels of organisation language ideologies and language policy motivations, uses and outcomes of policy

14. Implications for researching language Blommaert (2003): sociolinguistics of globalisation ‘will need to explain the various forms of interconnectedness between levels and scales of sociolinguistic phenomena’ in order to understand properly ‘what language achieves in people’s lives’. What might this mean in the present context? What might an appropriate research agenda look like?

15. Implications for researching language Research on ‘global languages’: World Englishes – competing discourses Global Spanish – language spread from above and from below Reshaping of language relationships and linguistic repertoires

16. Implications for researching language Research on ‘national languages’: Language and space National languages and language loyalty Controlling the flow of migration

17. Implications for researching language Emerging research agenda suggests: discrete categories not valid; need to assess impact of policy on experience; importance of different research methods.

18. Implications for researching language Research questions might therefore include: How are relationships between different languages / language varieties in particular states or regions being re-arranged / ‘restratified’? How are individual repertoires being re-ordered and what does this mean to people? In what sense are these processes aspects of, or reactions to, globalisation? How effective can the intervention of various mediating institutions at different levels be in influencing language behaviours in the context of apparently ‘directionless flows’ (Hüppauf) of globalised practices?

19. Some current research projects Language and Global Communication (Leverhulme) DYLAN: Language Dynamics and Management of Diversity (FP6) LINEE: Languages in a Network of European Excellence (FP6) Testing Regimes: Language, Migration and Citizenship (AHRC)

26. The German Language and the Future of Europe Overall aim How is German invoked and promoted in support of different kinds of identification process in Central Europe? Focus of projects Language, migration and citizenship in Germany Language, discourse and identity in CE

27. The German Language and the Future of Europe Theme 1 Across Europe Policies and discourses on migration framed by threats to national integrity: language proficiency as gatekeeping tool. In Germany national-level politics and policy from above local-level politics and policy from below

28. The German Language and the Future of Europe National-level politics and policy from above: from Einwanderung to Zuwanderung + Integration Nationality Act 2000, Süssmuth Report 2001, Immigration Act 2005 proficiency in German as ‘entitlement and obligation’ Förderung and Forderung language loyalty

29. The German Language and the Future of Europe Local-level politics and policy from below: Herbert-Hoover-Schule: ‘The official language in our school is German, the official language of the Federal Republic of Germany. Within the area to which these regulations apply every student is obliged to communicate only in this language.’ National debates and local relationships

30. The German Language and the Future of Europe Theme 2 German in CE: prestige  denigration  revival Recontextualisation of relationship between languages/varieties and reordering of locally available repertoires: new indexicality of linguistic forms. Eurobarometer: English = most widely used language in EU and most learned FL, but German = highest number of L1 speakers in EU and 2nd most widely used language. German in Hungary and Czech Republic.

31. The German Language and the Future of Europe Exploring the stratigraphy of language policy and the relationship between public discourses and private practices in the commodification/ evaluation of language: German foreign cultural policy; domestic cultural/ educational policy in neighbouring states; policy returned to private/personal sphere.

32. Conclusions Problematising ‘language’ Language and ‘national integrity’ Questions about the place of language and language ideologies Interconnectedness of levels and scales of sociolinguistic phenomena How linguists may contribute to the conference theme