1. 1 Announcement r CTEC code for TA CS 340 Lin Code: 322

2. 2 Last class r Network layer - introduction r Virtual circuit and datagram networks r Routing algorithms m Link state

3. 3 Link-state algorithm: example Step 0 1 2 3 4 5 N' u ux uxy uxyv uxyvw uxyvwz D(v),p(v) 2,u D(w),p(w) 5,u 4,x 3,y D(x),p(x) 1,u D(y),p(y) ∞ 2,x D(z),p(z) ∞ 4,y u y x wv z 2 2 1 3 1 1 2 5 3 5

4. 4 Overview m Distance vector r IP: Internet Protocol m Datagram format m IPv4 addressing m ICMP m IPv6

5. 5 Distance Vector Algorithm (1) Bellman-Ford Equation (dynamic programming) Define d x (y) := cost of least-cost path from x to y Then d x (y) = min {c(x,v) + d v (y) } where min is taken over all neighbors of x

6. 6 Bellman-Ford example (2) u y x wv z 2 2 1 3 1 1 2 5 3 5 Clearly, d v (z) = 5, d x (z) = 3, d w (z) = 3 d u (z) = min { c(u,v) + d v (z), c(u,x) + d x (z), c(u,w) + d w (z) } = min {2 + 5, 1 + 3, 5 + 3} = 4 Node that achieves minimum is next hop in shortest path ➜ B-F equation says:

7. 7 Distance Vector Algorithm (3) r Estimates: m D x (y) = estimate of least cost from x to y m Distance vector: D x = [D x (y): y є N ] r Each node x: m Node x knows cost to each neighbor v: c(x,v) m Node x maintains D x = [D x (y): y є N ] m Node x also maintains its neighbors’ distance vectors For each neighbor v, x maintains D v = [D v (y): y є N ]

8. 8 Distance vector algorithm (4) Basic idea: r Each node periodically sends its own distance vector estimate to neighbors r When a node x receives new DV estimate from neighbor, it updates its own DV using B-F equation: D x (y) ← min v {c(x,v) + D v (y)} for each node y ∊ N  Under minor, natural conditions, the estimate D x (y) converge the actual least cost d x (y)

9. 9 Distance Vector Algorithm (5) Iterative, asynchronous: each local iteration caused by: r local link cost change r DV update message from neighbor Distributed: r each node notifies neighbors only when its DV changes m neighbors then notify their neighbors if necessary m The algorithm doesn’t know the entire path – only knows the next hop wait for (change in local link cost of msg from neighbor) recompute estimates if DV to any dest has changed, notify neighbors Each node:

10. 10 x y z x y z 0 2 7 ∞∞∞ ∞∞∞ from cost to from x y z x y z 0 2 3 from cost to x y z x y z 0 2 3 from cost to x y z x y z ∞∞ ∞∞∞ cost to x y z x y z 0 2 7 from cost to x y z x y z 0 2 3 from cost to x y z x y z 0 2 3 from cost to x y z x y z 0 2 7 from cost to x y z x y z ∞∞∞ 710 cost to ∞ 2 0 1 ∞ ∞ ∞ 2 0 1 7 1 0 2 0 1 7 1 0 2 0 1 3 1 0 2 0 1 3 1 0 2 0 1 3 1 0 2 0 1 3 1 0 time x z 1 2 7 y node x table node y table node z table D x (y) = min{c(x,y) + D y (y), c(x,z) + D z (y)} = min{2+0, 7+1} = 2 D x (z) = min{c(x,y) + D y (z), c(x,z) + D z (z)} = min{2+1, 7+0} = 3

11. 11 Distance Vector: link cost changes Link cost changes: r node detects local link cost change r updates routing info, recalculates distance vector r if DV changes, notify neighbors “good news travels fast” x z 1 4 50 y 1 At time t 0, y detects the link-cost change, updates its DV, and informs its neighbors. At time t 1, z receives the update from y and updates its table. It computes a new least cost to x and sends its neighbors its DV. At time t 2, y receives z’s update and updates its distance table. y’s least costs do not change and hence y does not send any message to z.

12. 12 Distance Vector: link cost changes Link cost changes: r good news travels fast r bad news travels slow - “count to infinity” problem! r 44 iterations before algorithm stabilizes: see text Poissoned reverse: r If Z routes through Y to get to X : m Z tells Y its (Z’s) distance to X is infinite (so Y won’t route to X via Z) r will this completely solve count to infinity problem? x z 1 4 50 y 60

13. 13 Comparison of LS and DV algorithms Message complexity r LS: with n nodes, E links, O(nE) msgs sent r DV: exchange between neighbors only m convergence time varies Speed of Convergence r LS: O(n 2 ) algorithm requires O(nE) msgs m may have oscillations r DV: convergence time varies m may be routing loops m count-to-infinity problem Robustness: what happens if router malfunctions? LS: m node can advertise incorrect link cost m each node computes only its own table DV: m DV node can advertise incorrect path cost m each node’s table used by others error propagate thru network

14. 14 Overview m Distance vector r IP: Internet Protocol m Datagram format m IPv4 addressing m ICMP m IPv6

15. 15 The Internet Network layer forwarding table Host, router network layer functions: Routing protocols path selection RIP, OSPF, BGP IP protocol addressing conventions datagram format packet handling conventions ICMP protocol error reporting router “signaling” Transport layer: TCP, UDP Link layer physical layer Network layer

16. 16 IP datagram format ver length 32 bits data (variable length, typically a TCP or UDP segment) 16-bit identifier Internet checksum time to live 32 bit source IP address IP protocol version number header length (bytes) max number remaining hops (decremented at each router) for fragmentation/ reassembly total datagram length (bytes) upper layer protocol to deliver payload to head. len type of service “type” of data flgs fragment offset upper layer 32 bit destination IP address Options (if any) E.g. timestamp, record route taken, specify list of routers to visit. how much overhead with TCP? r 20 bytes of TCP r 20 bytes of IP r = 40 bytes + app layer overhead

17. 17 IP Fragmentation & Reassembly r network links have MTU (max.transfer size) - largest possible link-level frame. m different link types, different MTUs r large IP datagram divided (“fragmented”) within net m one datagram becomes several datagrams m “reassembled” only at final destination m IP header bits used to identify, order related fragments fragmentation: in: one large datagram out: 3 smaller datagrams reassembly

18. 18 IP Fragmentation and Reassembly ID =x offset =0 fragflag =0 length =4000 ID =x offset =0 fragflag =1 length =1500 ID =x offset =185 fragflag =1 length =1500 ID =x offset =370 fragflag =0 length =1040 One large datagram becomes several smaller datagrams Example r 4000 byte datagram r MTU = 1500 bytes 1480 bytes in data field offset = 1480/8

19. 19 Overview m Distance vector r IP: Internet Protocol m Datagram format m IPv4 addressing m ICMP m IPv6

20. 20 IP Addressing: introduction r IP address: 32-bit identifier for host, router interface r interface: connection between host/router and physical link m router’s typically have multiple interfaces m host may have multiple interfaces m IP addresses associated with each interface 223.1.1.1 223.1.1.2 223.1.1.3 223.1.1.4 223.1.2.9 223.1.2.2 223.1.2.1 223.1.3.2 223.1.3.1 223.1.3.27 223.1.1.1 = 11011111 00000001 00000001 00000001 223 111

21. 21 Subnets r IP address: m subnet part (high order bits) m host part (low order bits) r What’s a subnet ? m device interfaces with same subnet part of IP address m can physically reach each other without intervening router 223.1.1.1 223.1.1.2 223.1.1.3 223.1.1.4 223.1.2.9 223.1.2.2 223.1.2.1 223.1.3.2 223.1.3.1 223.1.3.27 network consisting of 3 subnets LAN

22. 22 Subnets 223.1.1.0/24 223.1.2.0/24 223.1.3.0/24 Recipe r To determine the subnets, detach each interface from its host or router, creating islands of isolated networks. Each isolated network is called a subnet. Subnet mask: /24

23. 23 Subnets Q. How many? A. The IP definition of a subnet is not restricted to Ethernet segments 223.1.1.1 223.1.1.3 223.1.1.4 223.1.2.2 223.1.2.1 223.1.2.6 223.1.3.2 223.1.3.1 223.1.3.27 223.1.1.2 223.1.7.0 223.1.7.1 223.1.8.0223.1.8.1 223.1.9.1 223.1.9.2

24. 24 IP addressing: CIDR Before CIDR: only 8-, 16-, and 24- bit masks were available (A, B, and C class networks) CIDR: Classless InterDomain Routing m subnet portion of address of arbitrary length m address format: a.b.c.d/x, where x is # bits in subnet portion of address 11001000 00010111 00010000 00000000 subnet part host part 200.23.16.0/23

25. 25 IP addresses: how to get one? Q: How does host get IP address? r hard-coded by system admin in a file m Wintel: control-panel->network->configuration- >tcp/ip->properties m UNIX: /etc/rc.config r DHCP: Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol: dynamically get address from as server m “plug-and-play” (more in a couple of weeks)

26. 26 IP addresses: how to get one? Q: How does network get subnet part of IP addr? A: gets allocated portion of its provider ISP’s address space ISP's block 11001000 00010111 00010000 00000000 200.23.16.0/20 Organization 0 11001000 00010111 00010000 00000000 200.23.16.0/23 Organization 1 11001000 00010111 00010010 00000000 200.23.18.0/23 Organization 2 11001000 00010111 00010100 00000000 200.23.20.0/23... ….. …. …. Organization 7 11001000 00010111 00011110 00000000 200.23.30.0/23

27. 27 Hierarchical addressing: route aggregation “Send me anything with addresses beginning 200.23.16.0/20” 200.23.16.0/23200.23.18.0/23200.23.30.0/23 Fly-By-Night-ISP Organization 0 Organization 7 Internet Organization 1 ISPs-R-Us “Send me anything with addresses beginning 199.31.0.0/16” 200.23.20.0/23 Organization 2...... Hierarchical addressing allows efficient advertisement of routing information:

28. 28 Hierarchical addressing: more specific routes ISPs-R-Us has a more specific route to Organization 1 “Send me anything with addresses beginning 200.23.16.0/20” 200.23.16.0/23200.23.18.0/23200.23.30.0/23 Fly-By-Night-ISP Organization 0 Organization 7 Internet Organization 1 ISPs-R-Us “Send me anything with addresses beginning 199.31.0.0/16 or 200.23.18.0/23” 200.23.20.0/23 Organization 2......

29. 29 IP addressing: the last word... Q: How does an ISP get block of addresses? A: ICANN: Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers m allocates addresses m manages DNS m assigns domain names, resolves disputes

30. 30 NAT: Network Address Translation 10.0.0.1 10.0.0.2 10.0.0.3 10.0.0.4 138.76.29.7 local network (e.g., home network) 10.0.0/24 rest of Internet Datagrams with source or destination in this network have 10.0.0/24 address for source, destination (as usual) All datagrams leaving local network have same single source NAT IP address: 138.76.29.7, different source port numbers

31. 31 NAT: Network Address Translation r Motivation: local network uses just one IP address as far as outside word is concerned: m no need to be allocated range of addresses from ISP: - just one IP address is used for all devices m can change addresses of devices in local network without notifying outside world m can change ISP without changing addresses of devices in local network m devices inside local net not explicitly addressable, visible by outside world (a security plus).

32. 32 NAT: Network Address Translation Implementation: NAT router must: m outgoing datagrams: replace (source IP address, port #) of every outgoing datagram to (NAT IP address, new port #)... remote clients/servers will respond using (NAT IP address, new port #) as destination addr. m remember (in NAT translation table) every (source IP address, port #) to (NAT IP address, new port #) translation pair m incoming datagrams: replace (NAT IP address, new port #) in dest fields of every incoming datagram with corresponding (source IP address, port #) stored in NAT table

33. 33 NAT: Network Address Translation 10.0.0.1 10.0.0.2 10.0.0.3 S: 10.0.0.1, 3345 D: 128.119.40.186, 80 1 10.0.0.4 138.76.29.7 1: host 10.0.0.1 sends datagram to 128.119.40, 80 NAT translation table WAN side addr LAN side addr 138.76.29.7, 5001 10.0.0.1, 3345 …… S: 128.119.40.186, 80 D: 10.0.0.1, 3345 4 S: 138.76.29.7, 5001 D: 128.119.40.186, 80 2 2: NAT router changes datagram source addr from 10.0.0.1, 3345 to 138.76.29.7, 5001, updates table S: 128.119.40.186, 80 D: 138.76.29.7, 5001 3 3: Reply arrives dest. address: 138.76.29.7, 5001 4: NAT router changes datagram dest addr from 138.76.29.7, 5001 to 10.0.0.1, 3345

34. 34 NAT: Network Address Translation r 16-bit port-number field: m 60,000 simultaneous connections with a single LAN-side address! r NAT is controversial: m Port numbers are to address processes – not hosts m routers should only process up to layer 3 m violates end-to-end argument NAT possibility must be taken into account by app designers, eg, P2P applications m address shortage should instead be solved by IPv6