1. Supply and Demand Models of Financial Markets
Chapter 21, 26, 29 30

2. Three Markets Loanable Funds Market Liquidity Market Forex Market
Determines Interest Rate in Capital Markets
Liquidity Market
Determines Money Market Rate
Forex Market
Determines Foreign Exchange Rate

3. Money Markets

4. Interest Rates

5. What are some major interest rates in financial markets
What are some major interest rates in financial markets? Be as specific as possible.

6. Bond Yields and Interest Rate
Bank accounts typically have very simple interest rates.
Balancet+1 = (1+i) ∙ Depositt
Short-term bills have equivalent rates called yields.
Face Valuet+1 = (1+i) ∙ Pricet
Simple loans could also be written
Repaymentt+1 = (1+i) ∙ Principalt

7. Liquid Assets Two kinds of assets
Liquid Assets (Currency, Checking Accounts, Savings Accounts) that are useful for transactions which pay zero or below market interest rates.
Money market assets (Government bills, commercial paper, jumbo CD’s) that pay a market rate, i, but which cannot be used for transactions

8. Liquidity Demand Q: Why does the money demand curve slope down?
A: The greater is the market interest rate, the greater is the opportunity cost of holding money.
Q: What shifts the money demand curve?
A: An increase in GDP will increase the need for money for transactions shifting the demand curve out. A reduction in GDP will shift the demand curve in.

9. Money Supply Supply of monetary assets governed by central bank.
Prints currency
Makes reserves available to banks
Governs fraction of deposits that banks must keep.

10. Money Market
Money Supply
Money Demand i i* M

11. Equilibrium in the Money Market
If interest rates are too high, excess supply of money:
people will want to buy interest paying assets like bank accounts or treasury bills.
Bond dealers and banks can reduce the interest rates they are willing to offer
If interest rates are too low, excess demand for money:
people will want to sell interest paying assets like bank accounts or treasury bills to get more liquidity.
Bond dealers and banks must raise interest rates.

12. Money Market: GDP Rises
Money Demand
Money Supply i
i** 2 i* 1
Money Demand’ M

13. Operating Targets: Target Interest Rates
Most big country CB’s target interbank interest rates, the rate at which banks lend reserves to one another (in HK, this is called what?)
Fed
Federal Funds Rate
BoJ
Uncollateralized Call Money Rate
ECB
Main Refinancing Rate
BoK
Overnight Call Rate UK
Official Bank Rate

14. Target Rates Affect Money Market Rates
CEIC Database

15. Money Supply
Government can control the money supply and can shift the curve in or out by decreasing or increasing money supply.
What does the central bank need to do to money supply to increase the interest rate?

16. Monetary Policy: Money Supply Shrinks
Money Demand
Money Supply i
i** 2 i* 1
Money
Supply’ M

17. Japan and the Liquidity Trap
BBC Story Download
During the 1990’s and this decade Bank of Japan reduced their interest rate ultimately implementing ZIRP – Zero Interest Rate Policy
Interest rate cannot be set at a rate below zero because of the existence of an alternative financial instrument that always pays better than negative rates.

18. Money Market at ZIRP
Money Demand
Money Supply i i* 1 2 3
i** M

19. ZIRP: Japan

20. Loanable Funds Market

21. Nominal and Real Interest Rates
Nominal return represents how much money you will receive after 1 year for giving up 1 dollar of money today
Real return represents how many goods you can buy if you give up the opportunity to buy 1 good today.
Nominal interest rate is money interest rate. Real interest rate is goods interest rate.

22. Imagine a 1 year loan [T =1]: The lender gives up some goods to make a loan and will buy goods in the future with the repayment.
If the price of goods at time t is Pt, the foregone current goods are
The goods value of the future repayment is

23. Real Interest Rate
The real interest rate on the loan is defined as the future goods received relative to current goods foregone

24. Measuring the Real Interest Rate
Two alternatives
Use nominal interest minus consensus inflation forecast
Use the yield on inflation protected securities.

25. TIPS Bond
The US Treasury offers bonds whose principal and coupon payments increase with the inflation rate.
Investors are paid off in terms of real purchasing power.
Yield is equivalent to a real interest rate.
Additional Information from U.S. Treasury

26. Real & Nominal Interest Rates
π5 Year Forecast

27. Loanable Funds Market
Consider the financial market at its broadest and most abstract.
an amalgamation of the bond market and the lending market (banks, etc.)
Map the relationship between the interest rate and the quantity of funds that are lent.
Supply curve represents the behavior of savers & lenders
Demand curve represents the behavior of borrowers
Could represent the global financial market or a large national market.

28. Supply Curve: Loanable Funds
Why does the supply curve slope up?
When real interest rates offered by banks are high, savers are rewarded with more future consumption and are likely to be induced to save more.
Caveat: If some savers are setting a target for their level of wealth at retirement, a higher interest rate reduces the amount they need to save.
For this reason, many economists believe saving curve is very inelastic.

29. Demand Curve: Loanable Funds
Why does the demand curve slope down?
Firms borrow to finance investment projects. If the return on investment falls below the interest rate, the project is not worthwhile. The higher the interest rate, the fewer projects fall below the hurdle.
Households borrow to finance housing. The higher are interest rates, the smaller is the house that the householders can buy with a mortgage payment that they can afford.

30. Competitive Market Equilibrium: Loanable Funds Market (Geometry)
LF* LF

31. Example: Investment Boom in Japan as economy recovers1
LF*
LF** LF

32. Savings We divide savings into 2 parts: SGovernment
Public Saving/Government Saving
(Budget Surplus)
+ SPrivate
Private Saving
(Household + Business Saving)
= S
National Saving

33. Example: US Government runs a deficit to finance military spending1
LF*
LF** LF

34. Example: US Consumers become thriftier
LF* LF

35. Example: US Consumers become thriftier1 r*
r**
LF**
LF* LF

36. Global Economy Additional Source of Savings
Loanable Funds Supply = S+KA =
National Savings + Net Capital Inflow from Abroad (+/-)
Two Effects
Supply Curve Becomes More Elastic
More globalized, more elastic
Global Financial Markets also a source of shifts in Supply Curve

37. Competitive Market Equilibrium: Loanable Funds Market (Global Economy)
S+KA r* KA
LF* LF

38. Questions
Compare Investment Boom in a very globalized economy with one in a less globalized economy. What happens to investment & interest rates?
What happens to a a globalized economy when there is an increase in overseas rates (or an increase in the rate premium).

39. Government Deficits (Globalized Economy) [r Doesn’t Rise by as Much, I doesn’t fall as much]
S’+KA 2
S+KA
r** r* 1
LF*
LF** LF

40. Investment Boom (Globalized Economy) [r Doesn’t Rise by as Much, I Rises by More]
S+KA
r** 2 I’ r* 1
LF*
LF** LF

41. Foreign Interest Rate Rises (Global Economy)
S+KA’
r**
S+KA 2 1 r*
LF* LF

42. Savings Glut
Theory put forth by Fed Chairman explaining the U.S. trade deficit.
Washington Post Article Download

43. Recent TIPS Bond

44. Capital Account
Model can be used to derive equilibrium real interest rates and national saving and investment as well as capital inflows (designated KA).
Trade balance is opposite of the capital account.
Trade balances are temporary.

45. Net Capital Outflows = ‘Goods & Income Outflows
Private Savings = Y + NFI -Tax – C
Public Savings = Tax – G
S = Y+ NFI – C – G
-KA = S – I = NFI + (Y – C – G – I)
-KA = NFI + NX = CA

46. US Current Account

47. Ex Ante Rate and the Fisher Effect
Savings and investment decisions must be made before future inflation is known so they must be made on the basis of an ex ante (predicted) real interest rate.
Fisher Hypothesis: Ex ante real interest rate is determined by forces in the financial market. Money interest rate is just the real ex ante rate plus the market’s consensus forecast of inflation.

48. Great Inflation of the 1970’s
Source: St. Louis Federal Reserve

49. Exchange Rate Model

50. Exchange Rates are Volatile

51. Why do exchange rates change?
Relative values of two currency determined by supply and demand by traders of the two currencies.
People trade currencies to engage in foreign trade and international investment.
Monetary policy is a prime driver of exchange rates.
And vice versa, Some economies structure monetary policy around exchange rate.

52. Forex Market: Supply & Demand
Consider the spot foreign exchange market.
Price of US$: S is the price of US$ in terms of DCU.
Supply of US$: Foreign people who want to acquire DCU to buy domestic goods or assets.
When US$ becomes expensive, domestic goods or assets get cheap and foreign investors are attracted to domestic currency.
Demand for US$: Domestic people who want to acquire US$ for foreign purchases or overseas investment.
When US$ get cheap, US$ goods or assets get cheap and demand for US$ rises

53. Equilibrium in Forex Market Supply Equals Demand

54. Increase in Desired Capital Outflows by Domestic Investors/ Desired Purchases of Foreign Goods2
Domestic Currency Depreciates S* 1
Demand '
Supply
Demand

55. Increase in Desired Capital Inflows by Foreign Investors/ Desired Purchases of Domestic Goods
Supply
Supply'
Domestic Currency Appreciates 1 S*
S** 2
Demand

56. US Monetary Policy Causes US$ Interest Rates Go Up Relative Demand for US$ Goes Up2
S**
Domestic Currency Depreciates S* 1
Supply'
Demand '
Supply
Demand

57. Domestic Monetary Policy Causes D. C
Domestic Monetary Policy Causes D.C. Interest Rates Go Up Relative Demand for US$ Goes Down S
Supply
Supply'
Domestic Currency Appreciates 1 S*
S** 2
Demand
Demand '

58. Monetary Policy & Exchange Rates
The central impact of the foreign currency intervention is on domestic interest rates.
Monetary policy that shifts domestic interest rates will also shift exchange rates regardless of whether it occurs through currency intervention, OMO, or some other change in quantity of bank reserves.
Monetary policy that does not shift interest rates will not shift exchange rates.

59. Foreign Currency Intervention
Foreign currency purchase:
Central bank purchases foreign currency
Credit reserve accounts of counterparty commercial bank
More reserves pushes down interest rates
Increases demand for and reduces supply of US$ in forex market
Foreign currency sale
Central bank sells foreign currency
Debit reserve accounts of purchasing bank
Less reserves pushes up interest rates
Reduces demand for and increases supply of US$ in forex market

60. Excess Demand for Foreign Currency
1. Domestic Currency Faces Depreciation Pressure A S*
Supply
Demand '
Demand

61. Forex Sale
Supply
Central Bank does Forex Sale maintaining Exchange Rate Stability
Shrinking money supply and higher domestic interest rates S A S* B
Demand
Supply'
Demand '

62. Excess Supply of Foreign Currency
1. Domestic Currency Faces Appreciation S* A
Supply
Demand

63. Forex Purchase
Central Bank does Forex Purchase maintaining Exchange Rate Stability
Growing money supply and lower domestic interest rates S B S*
Supply' A
Demand '
Supply
Demand

64. Iron Triangle of International Finance
Monetary Policy that Controls The Interest Rate
Open to International Capital Flows
Fixed Exchange Rates
Pick 2 items from this menu

65. Uncovered Interest Parity
Bloomberg News Download

66. Learning Outcomes Students should be able to:
Use the Loanable Funds model to analyze the effects of external events on savings, investment, and real interest rates in capital markets and;
Compare capital markets in globalized economies with those in closed economies.
Use the money supply and demand model of money markets to examine the effect of changes in the economy on money market rates and;

67. Learning Outcomes Pt. 2
Use the Supply-Demand model of the forex model to explain:
the effect of international trade conditions on the exchange rate.
the impact of interest rates and other financial market conditions on exchange rates.
Government policy efforts to stabilize the exchange rate.

68. Discussion Question
In the past 3 years, the US dollar has been weak against a number of currencies including the British pound, Euro, Australian dollar, etc.
Discuss what types of firms in a country might benefit from a strong currency and what types will benefit from a weak country. What aspects of a firm's balance sheets and income statements can you imagine might be affected?
Use the exchange rate model/money market model to help understand what would happen to the domestic economy if the government decided to weaken the currency. Which types of firms might benefit and which would lose.