1. Empirical Methods – G. Grote ETHZ, HS 07 Obectives of the course Basic knowledge of social science methods Ability to assess quality of existing research Ability to carry out studies in an organizational context Ability to evaluate/hire external experts for carrying out studies

2. Empirical Methods – G. Grote ETHZ, HS 07 Examples of social science methods used in organizational contexts Interview –Selection interview –Performance appraisal Questionnaire –Employee survey –Customer survey –Personality test Observation –Job analysis –Assessment center

3. Empirical Methods – G. Grote ETHZ, HS 07 Special issues in social research Control of complexity –Constraints on manipulation of study conditions –Studying "hypothetical constructs" –Limited possibilities for reducing complexity Studies with humans –Effects through researcher / researched individual and social embeddedness –Ethical principles: voluntary participation, informed consent, no physical/psychological harm, confidentiality  It is all about grey zones, there is no black and white  Building competence for navigating in these grey zones.

4. Empirical Methods – G. Grote ETHZ, HS 07 Special issues for social research in organizational contexts Objectives for study by different stakeholders in the organization Role/influence of people carrying out the study Role/influence of people being studied Control over use of results and consequences of study

5. Empirical Methods – G. Grote ETHZ, HS 07 Empirical methods Overview

6. Empirical Methods – G. Grote ETHZ, HS 07 Textbook Darren Langdridge, Introduction to Research Methods and Data Analysis in Psychology. Pearson Prentice-Hall, 2004. ISBN 0-13-097832-9 amazon.de: EUR 49.90 amazon.co.uk: £23.39 (excl. shipping) Polybuchhandlung: ca. CHF 89.- Orell Füssli Bookshop CHF 80.-

7. Empirical Methods – G. Grote ETHZ, HS 07 Organization of course Lectures Three tutorials to be worked on at home Written, open book exam during the exam weeks at the end of the semester (2./3. week of January) Grade: 50% tutorials, 50% exam

8. Empirical Methods – G. Grote ETHZ, HS 07 Tutorial 1 Please read the following article and write a short critique (ca. 2-3 pages) regarding the quality of the article using the criteria presented in the lecture. You may work on this tutorial alone or together with one other student. The article: Lipshitz, R. & Strauss, O. (1997). Coping with uncertainty: A naturalistic decision-making analysis. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 69, 149-163. (available at www.oat.ethz.ch)

9. Empirical Methods – G. Grote ETHZ, HS 07 Steps in empirical research Define general question of interest Draw on existing knowledge to develop specific questions/hypotheses to be studied Determine design of study Data collection Data analysis Interpretation/conclusions regarding initial questions/hypotheses

10. Empirical Methods – G. Grote ETHZ, HS 07 Criteria for good research Internal validity = unambiguous interpretation of results/few alternative explanations for results Possible problems: uncontrolled influences by e.g. external events, selection of participants, repeated measuring External validity = generalizability of results regarding other samples of people, situations, time Possible problems: special characteristics of participants, reactions to measurement as such, interaction of several "treatments"

11. Empirical Methods – G. Grote ETHZ, HS 07 Criteria for good research methods Reliability: stability of measurement –Internal consistency –Retest –Split half Validity: measuring what is intended to be measured –Face validity –Criterion validity: concurrent, predictive –Construct validity

12. Empirical Methods – G. Grote ETHZ, HS 07 Basic model of empirical studies Independent variable/s Conditions/Causes Dependent variable/s Effects Intervening variable/s Confounding variable/s

13. Empirical Methods – G. Grote ETHZ, HS 07 Quantitative versus qualitative approaches Quantitative approaches: measuring and counting phenomena +precise, controlled, claims on causation/prediction -oversimplification, no recognition of subjectivity/ individuality Qualitative approaches: capturing qualities of phenomena +recognition of subjectivity/individuality, openness -difficult to establish internal and external validity, difficult to separate data analysis and interpretation

14. Empirical Methods – G. Grote ETHZ, HS 07 Developing a study design (1) Deciding on overall objective: –Testing hypotheses (incl. evaluation) –Generating hypotheses –Describing a population –Testing methods Defining variables of interest –Analytical definition –Operational definition  determining methods for data collection

15. Empirical Methods – G. Grote ETHZ, HS 07 Developing a study design (2) Determine sample –Type: Random, stratified, cluster, convenience,... –Size Determine methods for data analysis Internal and external validity check Planning resources

16. Empirical Methods – G. Grote ETHZ, HS 07 Analytic/operational definition of variables Analytic definition: Content/meaning of variable Operational definition: Measurement of variable

17. Empirical Methods – G. Grote ETHZ, HS 07 Overview of methods for data collection Analysis of documents + non-reactive, "condensed organizational knowledge" -not aligned with purpose of the investigation Questionnaire +objective, applicable for large samples -no control over the actual data collection, response biases Interview +control over data collection, complex issues possible -resource-intensive, interviewer influences Observation +access to implicit knowledge, natural situation -subjective meaning of the observed unknown, no control over the occurrence of the events under study

18. Empirical Methods – G. Grote ETHZ, HS 07 How the questions shape the answers (1) "Does it seem possible or does it seem impossible to you that the Nazi extermination of the Jews never happened?" 33% responded with "possible" versus "Do you believe the Holocaust happened?" 89% yes, 3.5% no, 7% don´t know Taboo behaviors: don´t ask if but when the behavior has been shown in the past

19. Empirical Methods – G. Grote ETHZ, HS 07 How the questions shape the answers (2)

20. Empirical Methods – G. Grote ETHZ, HS 07 How the questions shape the answers (3) From: Schwarz, N. (1999). Self-reports. How the questions shape the answers. American Psychologist, 54, 93-105.

21. Empirical Methods – G. Grote ETHZ, HS 07 Exercise on defining variables Are part-time employees discriminated against in company X? Does downsizing reduce loyalty of remaining employees? Did a leadership training in company A improve employee motivation?  Which are the independent, dependent, intervening variables? How should the variables be defined analytically and operationally?

22. Empirical Methods – G. Grote ETHZ, HS 07 Overview of methods for data analysis Overall objective of data analysis –Description –Reduction –Preparation for interpretation and generalization Quantitative analysis –Descriptive statistics –Inferential statistics Qualitative analysis

23. Empirical Methods – G. Grote ETHZ, HS 07 Basics on inferential statistics (1) Overall objective: –Estimating the likelihood of results found in a particular sample occurring in the relevant population –Accuracy of this estimation depends on sample size and variance of variables studied –Error probability is controlled for both adopting a false hypothesis and rejecting a correct hypothesis

24. Empirical Methods – G. Grote ETHZ, HS 07 Basics on inferential statistics (2) Steps: –Determining null hypothesis and alternative hypothesis –Calculate estimate for relevant parameter (e.g. mean) –Calculate and compare test statistic and critical value –Decide for/against null hypothesis

25. Empirical Methods – G. Grote ETHZ, HS 07 Basics on inferential statistics (3) Select appropriate tests –Based on scale level of variables (nominal, ordinal, interval, ratio) –Based on distribution of variable (e.g. normal distribution) –Based on research question, e.g. Comparing means (two groups, e.g. t-test; more groups, e.g. analysis of variance) Testing associations (e.g. Pearson correlation)

26. Empirical Methods – G. Grote ETHZ, HS 07 Reporting social science research Overall objectives –Consistent, transparent documentation of research process –Building trust in interpretation/conclusions Structure of report –Management summary –Introduction/rationale for study –Motivation for specific questions studied based on existing knowledge –Methods: sample, data collection and analysis –Results –Interpretation/Conclusions –Appendix: Instruments used, raw data etc.

27. Empirical Methods – G. Grote ETHZ, HS 07 The seminar... (from ASQ, 1979) Qualitative researcher: "Many people these days are bored with their work and are..." Quantitative researcher (interrupting): "What people, how many, when do they feel this way, where do they work, what do they do, why are they bored, how long have they felt this way, what are their needs, when do they feel excited, where did they come from, what parts of their work bother them most, which..." Qualitative researcher: "Never mind."