1. http://www.ablongman.com/bee4eCopyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 13 Prenatal Development And Birth Physical and Cognitive Development in Early Adulthood This multimedia product and its contents are protected under copyright law. The following are prohibited by law: any public performance or display, including transmission of any image over a network; preparation of any derivative work, including the extraction, in whole or part, of any images; any rental, lease, or lending of the program.

2. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Physical Functioning Primary Aging –Basic underlying inevitable aging process Secondary Aging –Products of environmental influences, health habits, or disease, and that are neither inevitable nor experienced by all adults

3. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Figure 13.1

4. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 The Brain and Nervous System Some parts of the brain produce new neurons. –Enriched environments seem to help Growth Spurts –Frontal lobe growth from 17 – 22 Strongly connected to formal operational thinking –Response inhibition control of the limbic system from the mid-to late 20s

5. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 The Brain and Nervous System Gradual loss of speed –Affects every bodily function –Result of gradual changes at neuronal level Loss of dendrites Slowing of the firing rate of nerves

6. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 The Brain and Nervous System Sex Differences –Men have a lower proportion of gray matter in the left brain. May produce superior spatial perception –Women have equal portions of gray matter in each side of the brain. May explain gender differences in emotions –Ratio of gray to white matter is associated with individual differences in performance on verbal tasks for males, but not for females.

7. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Other Body Systems Young adults have better physical skills on all measures when compared to older adults. –Stronger –Faster –Better immune systems –Better eyesight –More brain mass

8. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Other Body Systems Declines in Physical Functioning –Losses that appear later in life start in early adulthood. –Table 13.1 represents primary aging.

9. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Other Body Systems Heart and Lungs –Maximum oxygen uptake (VO 2 max) Reflects the ability of the body to take in and transport oxygen to body organs Systematic decline during exercise yearly Figure 13.2 shows a slight decline in women during early adulthood followed by a rapid decline in middle years. Older adults’ hearts respond less efficiently to exercise demands than do younger adults’.

10. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Figure 13.2

11. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Physical Functioning Strength and Speed –Longitudinal study of men showed a loss of grip strength over a 9 year period. –Strength peaks in the 20’s and early 30’s. Reproductive Capacity –Women’s reproductive capacity begins to drop. –Men’s capacity drops much more slowly.

12. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Figure 13.3

13. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Physical Functioning Immune System Functioning –Thymus gland and bone marrow produce B cells and T cells B cells –Produce antibodies to fight off external threats T cells –Defend against internal threats, such as transplanted organs, cancer, and viruses –Decline in number and efficiency with age

14. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Physical Functioning Thymus gland Central to the aging process Lower functioning leads to less-effective T cells Declines in immune system may be primary aging or may be secondary aging in response to stress or depression.

15. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Health and Wellness Sexually Transmitted Diseases –Bacterial STDs Caused by microorganisms that can be eradicated with antibiotic medication –Chlamydia – transmitted through physical contact with the genitals »Women – 3 times as likely to suffer from chlamydia »Women often remain symptom free. »Undiagnosed can lead to pelvic inflammatory disease.

16. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Sexually Transmitted Diseases Bacterial STDs –Gonorrhea Declined in recent years More resistant to antibiotics Causes long-term damage to reproductive systems –Syphilis Can lead to serious mental disorders and death African American rates remain high

17. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Sexually Transmitted Diseases Viral STDs –Genital Herpes Acquired through intercourse or oral sex 20% of adults affected Periodic attacks with no complete cure –Genital Warts Caused by human papillomavirus Visible symptoms are warts High risk for cervical cancer – 80% of cases

18. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Sexually Transmitted Diseases HIV/AIDS –500,000 deaths so far in U.S. –Transmitted through exchange of bodily fluids –Male homosexual rates remain high Prevention –Behavioral changes Less risky sexual behavior Use of condoms

19. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Health Habits and Personal Factors Health Habits –7 healthy habits identified by longitudinal research Getting physical exercise Not smoking Not drinking Not over- or undereating No snacking Eating breakfast Getting regular sleep

20. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Health Habits and Personal Factors Health Habits –7 healthy habits identified by longitudinal research. –Poorer health habits had a higher risk of mortality, disease, and disability. –Additional research links physical exercise and lower risk of death. –Lower BMI numbers in women associated with lower risks of death.

21. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Health Habits and Personal Factors Social Support –Adequate amounts lower risk of disease, death, and depression –Person’s perception of adequate support more important than actual support –Especially helpful when a person is under high stress May help to fight off depression due to stress

22. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Health Habits and Personal Factors A Sense of Control –Perceived control – self-efficacy The belief in one’s ability to perform some action or to control one’s behavior or environment to reach some goal Lower levels of self-efficacy associated with depression and physical illness Pessimism appears especially problematic over age 45

23. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Intimate Partner Abuse Prevalence –25% of women and 8% of men are physically abused by a partner. –50% of African American women are abused. –Hispanic women have higher rates of abuse than whites. Critical factor may be poverty, not race –22 % of gay men suffer abuse. –50% of lesbian women report abuse.

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25. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Intimate Partner Abuse Causes –Cultural attitudes Women are regarded as property. –Gender-role prescriptions High in Japanese women, based on belief that men are absolute rulers over wives and children –Personality traits Same cluster of traits in heterosexual and homosexual abusers –Tendency toward irrational jealousy –Control of relationship –Sudden mood swings –Quick temper Aggressive men and unemployed men are frequent abusers.

26. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Intimate Partner Abuse Causes –Abuse victims More likely to have been abused as children Young women between 16 and 24 are more likely to be abused. –May reflect less ability of young women to act independently of the abuser –May be more likely to be caring for young infants –May be undereducated –Alcohol and drug problems common with abusers and victims.

27. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Intimate Partner Abuse Effects of abuse –Women may develop anxiety, depression, shame, and low self-esteem. –Witnessing abuse influences negative developmental outcomes in children. Prevention –Vigorous law enforcement of abuse –Temporary shelters –Training programs stressing problem-solving and communication skills

28. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Intimate Partner Abuse Sexual Violence –Episodes of partner abuse in which one individual uses force to coerce the other into engaging in sexual acts –20% of women affected –3% of men are victims –Can lead to development of sexual dysfunctions and posttraumatic stress disorder

29. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Mental Health Problems Causes –Highest expectations and highest levels of role conflict and role strain May lead to anxiety and depression –Researchers are focusing on biological causes. Mental illness runs in families. Disturbances in specific brain functions occur.

30. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Anxiety, Mood and Substance Use Disorders Anxiety –Phobia – irrational fear of an object, person, place, or situation Learned through association Therapeutic interventions involve unlearning the association. Depression –Rates are higher in early adulthood than in adolescence or middle age. –May result from intimacy issues and loneliness

31. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Anxiety, Mood and Substance Use Disorders Alcoholism and drug addiction peak between 18 and 40. Rates are higher for men than women. Binge drinking is common among college students.

32. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Anxiety, Mood and Substance Use Disorders Personality Disorder –Inflexible pattern of behavior that leads to difficulties in social, educational, and occupational functioning –May be related to stressful breakups –Behaviors start in mid- or late adolescence –Can remain problematic throughout life

33. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Anxiety, Mood and Substance Use Disorders Schizophrenia –Characterized by false beliefs known as delusions and false sensory experiences known as hallucinations Delusions of grandeur Delusions of persecution Hallucinations, such as hearing voices –May be helped by antipsychotic medications

34. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Cognitive Changes Formal Operations and Beyond –Labouvie-Vief argues that formal operations may be needed only in early adulthood until a person makes initial life choices. Later thinking reflects thinking skills that are specialized and pragmatic. Contextual validity – learning how to solve problems associated with social roles and occupations –Basseches – dialectical thought Attempts to describe fundamental process of change and the dynamic relationships through which change occurs Different kind of thinking than formal operations proposes. –Arlin – problem-finding. creativity – able to generate many possible solutions to ill-defined problems and to see old problems in new ways

35. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Intelligence and Memory IQ scores –Remain stable across early adulthood –Seattle Longitudinal study suggests that intelligence test scores rise slightly in adulthood before dropping as adults reach 60 years of age. –Crystallized Intelligence Depends heavily on education and experience Remains steady throughout early and middle adulthood –Fluid Intelligence Speed measures of abstract reasoning Steady decline throughout lifespan

36. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Figure 13.5

37. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Intelligence and Memory Memory –Short term memory shows a drop with age. –Storage and retrieval of long term memories become more difficult with age. –Declines in metamemory and metacognition may be responsible for memory loss.

38. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Post-Secondary Education Developmental Impact –Economic value of completing a degree –Levels the economic playing field for men and women Earn more promotions Less likely to be unemployed Higher aspirations are inspired during college years New socialization opportunities arise

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40. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Traditional and Nontraditional Students Traditional –Enroll in school full-time directly after graduation 40% enroll to conform to parental expectations Many leave college at least temporarily 2/3 obtain a degree within 5 years Non-traditional –Delay entry into college Independent from parents Employed full time Enrolled part time Have children Possess a GED rather than a high school diploma

41. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Traditional and Nontraditional Students Traditional students pursue bachelor degrees. 54% of non-traditional students succeed in getting a vocational certificate, while 21% receive associates and 31% attain bachelor degrees. Non-traditional students set more realistic goals for themselves. Support from the institution is critical for successful management of the conflicting demands of school, family, and work.

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43. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Students with Disabilities Post-secondary education is now required to serve all people with disabilities. –Modifications to facilities and special education services must be provided. –Extra time to take tests is the most frequent accommodation. –Students with disabilities receive lower course grades than their peers. –They perceive the college environment to be inhospitable.

44. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Gender and the College Experience Slight majority of college students are female Females also have higher graduation rates Women’s entrance exam scores are lower than men’s. –Allows more men to enter prestigious universities There appear to be few overt indicators of sex bias in college classrooms.

45. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Gender and the College Experience Intellectually talented women are reluctant to pursue difficult majors. Women use a wider variety of study strategies. Women adapt more easily to the demands of education. –Perform better in distance learning classes –Catch up to men in computer skills Women appear less likely to be influenced by peer decisions when faced with choices such as binge drinking.

46. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Race and the College Experience Most minority groups have lower drop-out rates than whites. African Americans have the highest dropout rate – 44%. –Have similar educational and career aspirations –Goals seem to be carefully and realistically formulated –More likely to perceive themselves as not fitting in –Personally experience overt expressions of racism –Strong sense of racial identity is associated with persistence and academic performance. –Cognitive development appears to be higher in historically black colleges than in predominantly white schools.

47. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Questions to Ponder Think of elite athletes. When are they in their prime: gymnastics, swimming, weight-lifting, baseball, football, golf, and tennis? What does this tell us about aging? How aggressively do you protect yourself from an STD? How would you handle a partner that balks at using protection or your use of protection? Are there indications of sex bias in your college classrooms?

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