1. The Methods of Social Psychology
Chapter Two
The Methods of Social Psychology

2. The Science of Social Psychology
Like all sciences, social psychology relies on the scientific method
we seek a certain level of explanation
we require certain forms of evidence
we base conclusions on the results of empirical studies

3. The Scientific Method
Research in social psychology poses challenges not found in other sciences
the behaviors of interests aren’t as tangible as the elements found in a physicist’s laboratory, for example
Social psychologists rely on a wide range of creative research methodologies
lab experiments, field studies, surveys, questionnaires, archival data, are examples

4. Theories and Hypotheses
Theory
an explanation of why an event or outcome occurs
Hypothesis
a specific prediction about what should occur if the theory is valid

5. Translating Concepts Into Operations
Operationalization is a long word for an important idea
we need to transform our conceptual variables into operational variables
“Absence makes the heart grow fonder”
what do we mean by “absence?”
what do we mean by “heart?”
what do we mean by “fonder?”

6. Concept Review

7. Measurement: Self-Reports
Self-report measures
people provide reports on their own behavior
assumes people are able and willing to report on their own behavior
wording, reliability, validity, etc., are key considerations

8. Measurement: Behavioral Measures
observations of actual behavior are taken
high in validity
the research participant is behaving…it’s real, it’s actual
high in resource consumption
can be time-consuming to collect, difficult to quantify

9. Reliability and Validity
Reliability refers to the consistency of a measurement process
test-retest: consistency over time
inter-rater: consistency across judges
Validity refers to the accuracy of a measurement process
a valid measure should be predictive of future behavior

10. Correlational Research
A correlation coefficient describes the linear relationship between two variables
it is a measure of “how much two things go together, and in what way”
Knowing that two variables are related, however, does not reveal their causal relationship
correlations can’t tell us which variable caused the other

11. Surveys, Sampling, Archives
Questionnaires distributed to respondents provide data for correlational analyses
Representative samples are important for extrapolating results to populations
Archival research involves examining existing records for a new research purpose

12. Observational Studies
Participants are observed as they behave in real-world settings
Participant-observation
researchers participate in the same behaviors as the people they are observing

13. Experimental Research
To determine causality, researchers need to conduct experiments
an independent variable is manipulated by the experimenter
a dependent variable is the measured outcome, the change in participants’ behavior, brought about by the independent variable

14. Independent Variables
The independent variable is manipulated by the experimenter
Participants in different experimental conditions are exposed to different levels of the IV
The independent variable is “independent” of the research participant’s behavior
it is the “cause” of a cause-and-effect relationship

15. Dependent Variables
The dependent variable is the outcome measured by the experimenter
Could be self-report, behavior, or some other way of assessing an outcome
The dependent variable “depends” on the research participant’s behavior
it is the “effect” of a cause-and-effect relationship

16. Extraneous Variables
Any variable that isn’t the independent variable or the dependent variable is extraneous to that relationship in that experiment
extraneous variables can be nuisances
Extraneous variables that systematically differ between conditions are called confounds
confounding variables cloud your ability to see the true effects of the IV on the DV

17. Concept Review

18. Standardized Procedures
Standardized procedures help make sure that conditions are held constant during the conduct of an experiment
time of day, delivery of instructions, setting, temperature, timing, etc., should be standardized

19. Random Assignment
In an experiment, participants are typically randomly assigned to conditions
we don’t want all the smart people in the experimental group and all the not-so-smart people in the control group, for example
random assignment helps create groups that are equivalent at the start of the experiment

20. Demand Characteristics
Demand characteristics are cues in an experiment that suggest to participants how they should act or how they should respond
these are to be avoided, of course...

21. Internal and External Validity
Experimenters recognize two types of validity
internal validity
can the changes in the DV be confidently attributed to the changes in the IV?
external validity
do the results of the experiment generalize to the outside world?

22. Concept Review

23. Single-Factor Experiments
The simplest experimental design manipulates one independent variable
this produces at least two groups
an experimental group that receives the IV manipulation, and a control group that doesn’t
This design can be prettied-up by including a pretest
a pretest-posttest design measures the DV both before and after the introduction of the IV

24. Factorial Design Experiments
Experiments in which more than one IV is manipulated at the same time are called factorial designs
factorial designs reveal two types of information
main effects: the effects of each IV separately
interaction: the combined effects of the IVs on the DV

25. Making Experiments Real
Experimenters recognize two types of realism
experimental realism
does the experimental situation feel real to the participants in that situation?
mundane realism
does the experiment have the look and feel of situations in the outside world?

26. Field Experiments
Although the laboratory allows researchers a great deal of experimental control, conducting experiments in a natural setting allows for a richer understanding of a phenomenon

27. Social Psychology and the Internet
Advantage
access to large, diverse populations
Disadvantage
minimal knowledge of the true characteristics of the participants makes the results somewhat suspect for some applications

28. Technology and Social Psychology
Immersive virtual environments
“constructed reality” allows for greater creativity in designing experiments
Event-sampling methods
increasing sophistication characterizes diary, beeper, and other event-sampling techniques

29. Ethical Issues in Social Psychology
All research must be approved by an Institutional Review Board
Participants must give their informed consent before taking part in an experiment
Participants must be debriefed after the conclusion of an experiment