1. Access to video memory We create a Linux device-driver that gives applications access to our graphics frame-buffer

2. The role of a device-driver user application standard “runtime” libraries call ret user spacekernel space Operating System kernel syscall sysret device-driver module call ret hardware device out in i/o memory RAM A device-driver is a software module that controls a hardware device in response to OS kernel requests relayed, often, from an application

3. Raster Display Technology The graphics screen is a two-dimensional array of picture elements (‘pixels’) Each pixel’s color is an individually programmable mix of red, green, and blue These pixels are redrawn sequentially, left-to-right, by rows from top to bottom

4. Special “dual-ported” memory VRAM RAM CPU CRT 16-MB of VRAM 2048-MB of RAM

5. How much VRAM is needed? This depends on (1) the total number of pixels, and on (2) the number of bits-per-pixel The total number of pixels is determined by the screen’s width and height (measured in pixels) Example: when our “screen-resolution” is set to 1280-by-960, we are seeing 1,228,800 pixels The number of bits-per-pixel (“color depth”) is a programmable parameter (varies from 1 to 32) Certain types of applications also need to use extra VRAM (for multiple displays, or for “special effects” like computer game animations)

6. How ‘truecolor’ works R B G alpharedgreenblue 081624 pixel longword The intensity of each color-component within a pixel is an 8-bit value

7. x86 uses “little-endian” order BGRBGRBGR VRAM 0 1 2 3 Video Screen 4 5 6 78 9 10 … “truecolor” graphics-modes use 4-bytes per picture-element

8. Some operating system issues Linux is a “protected-mode” operating system I/O devices normally are not directly accessible Linux on x86 platforms uses “virtual memory” Privileged software must “map” the VRAM A device-driver module is needed: ‘vram.c’ We can compile it using: $ mmake vram Device-node: # mknod /dev/vram c 98 0 Make it ‘writable’: # chmod a+w /dev/vram

9. Our ‘vram.c’ module It’s a character-mode Linux device-driver It implements four device-file ‘methods’: –‘read()’: lets a program read from video memory –‘write()’: lets a program write to video memory –‘llseek()’: lets a program ‘move’ the file’s pointer –‘mmap()’: lets a program ‘map’ vram to user-space It also implements a pseudo-file that lets users view the RADEON X300 graphics controller’s PCI Configuration Space parameter-values: $ cat /proc/vram

10. What is PCI? It’s an acronym for “Peripheral Component Interconnect” and refers to a collection of industry standards for devices used in PCs An Intel-sponsored initiative (from 1992-9) having several ambitious goals: Reduce diversity inherent in legacy PC devices Improve speed and efficiency of data-transfers Eliminate (or reduce) platform dependencies Simplify adding/removing peripheral adapters Lower PC’s total consumption of electrical power

11. PCI Configuration Space PCI Configuration Space Body (48 doublewords – variable format) 64 doublewords PCI Configuration Space Header (16 doublewords – fixed format) A non-volatile parameter-storage area for each PCI device-function

12. Example: Header Type 0 Status Register Command Register Device ID Vendor ID BIST Cache Line Size Class Code Class/SubClass/ProgIF Revision ID Base Address 0 Subsystem Device ID Subsystem Vendor ID CardBus CIS Pointer reserved capabilities pointer Expansion ROM Base Address Minimum Grant Interrupt Pin reserved Latency Timer Header Type Base Address 1 Base Address 2Base Address 3 Base Address 4Base Address 5 Interrupt Line Maximum Latency 31 0 16 doublewords Dwords 1 - 0 3 - 2 5 - 4 7 - 6 9 - 8 11 - 10 13 - 12 15 - 14

13. Examples of VENDOR-IDs 0x8086 – Intel Corporation 0x1022 – Advanced Micro Devices, Inc 0x1002 – Advanced Technologies, Inc 0x10EC – RealTek, Incorporated 0x10DE – Nvidia Corporation 0x10B7 – 3Com Corporation 0x101C – Western Digital, Inc 0x1014 – IBM Corporation 0x0E11 – Compaq Corporation 0x1057 – Motorola Corporation 0x106B – Apple Computers, Inc 0x5333 – Silicon Integrated Systems, Inc

14. Examples of DEVICE-IDs 0x5347: ATI RAGE128 SG 0x4C58: ATI RADEON LX 0x5950: ATI RS480 0x436E: ATI IXP300 SATA 0x438C: ATI IXP600 IDE 0x5B60:ATI Radeon X300 See this Linux header-file for lots more examples:

15. Defined PCI Class Codes 0x00: Legacy Device (i.e., built before class-codes were defined) 0x01: Mass Storage controller 0x02: Network controller 0x03: Display controller 0x04: Multimedia device 0x05: Memory Controller 0x06: Bridge device 0x07: Simple Communications controller 0x08: Base System peripherals 0x09: Input device 0x0A: Docking stations 0x0B: Processors 0x0C: Serial Bus controllers 0x0D: Wireless controllers 0x0E: Intelligent I/O controllers 0x0F: Encryption/Decryption controllers 0x10: Satellite Communications controllers 0x11: Data Acquisition and Signal Processing controllers

16. Example of Sub-Class Codes Class Code 0x01: Mass Storage controller –0x00: SCSI controller –0x01: IDE controller –0x02: Floppy Disk controller –0x03: IPI controller –0x04: RAID controller –0x80: Other Mass Storage controller

17. Example of Sub-Class Codes Class Code 0x02: Network controller –0x00: Ethernet controller –0x01: Token Ring controller –0x02: FDDI controller –0x03: ATM controller –0x04: ISDN controller –0x80: Other Network controller

18. Example of Sub-Class codes Class Code 0x03: Display Controller –0x00: VGA-compatible controller –0x01: XGA controller –0x02: 3D controller –0x80: Other display controller

19. Hardware details may differ Graphics controllers use vendor-specific mechanisms to perform similar operations There’s a common core of compatibility with IBM’s VGA (Video Graphics Array) developed in the mid-1980s, but since IBM’s loss of market dominance, each manufacturer has added enhancements which employ incompatible programming interfaces – you need a vendor’s manual!

20. The ‘frame-buffer’ Today’s PCI graphics systems all provide a dedicated amount of display memory to control the screen-image’s pixel-coloring But how much memory will vary with price And its location within the CPU’s physical address-space can’t be predicted because it depends upon what other PCI devices are installed (and mapped) during startup

21. The ‘base address’ fields The PCI Configuration Header has several so-called Base Addess fields, and vendors use one of these to hold the frame-buffer’s starting address and to indicate how much vram the video controller can actually use The Linux kernel provides driver-writers with some convenient functions for getting the location and size of the frame-buffer

22. Radeon uses Base Address 0 Our ‘vram.c’ module’s initialization routine employs these kernel helper-functions: #include struct pci_dev *devp; // for a variable that will point to a kernel-structure // get a pointer to the PCI device’s Linux data-structure devp = pci_get_device( VENDOR_ID, DEVICE_ID, NULL ); if ( !devp ) return –ENODEV;// device is not present // get starting address and length for memory-resource 0 vram_base = pci_resource_start( devp, 0 ); vram_size = pci_resource_len( devp, 0 );

23. Reading from ‘vram’ You can use our ‘fileview’ utility to see the current contents of the video frame-buffer $ fileview /dev/vram Our ‘vram.c’ driver’s ‘read()’ method gets invoked when an application-program attempts to ‘read’ from the ‘/dev/vram’ device-file The read-method is implemented by our driver using ‘ioremap()’ (and ’iounmap()’) to temporarily map a 4KB-page of physical vram to the kernel’s virtual address-space

24. I/O ‘memcpy()’ functions Linux provides a ‘platform-independent’ way to do copying from an i/o-device’s memory into an application’s buffer (or vice-versa): –A ‘read’ copies from vram to a user’s buffer memcpy_fromio( buf, vaddr, len ); –A ‘write’ copies to vram from a user’s buffer memcpy_toio( vaddr, buf, len );

25. ‘mmap()’ This is a standard UNIX system-call that lets an application ‘map’ a file into its virtual address-space, where it can then treat the file as if it were an ordinary array See the man-page: $ man mmap This same system-call can also work on a device-file if that device’s driver provided ‘mmap()’ among its file-operations

26. The user-role In the application-program, six arguments get passed to the ‘mmap()’ library-function int mmap( (void*)baseaddress, int memorysize, int accessattributes, int flags, int filehandle, int offset );

27. The driver-role In the kernel, those six arguments will get validated and processed, then the driver’s ‘mmap()’ callback-function will be invoked to supply missing information and perform further sanity-checks and do appropriate page-mapping actions: int mmap( struct file *file, struct vm_area_struct *vma );

28. Our driver’s code int mmap( struct file *file, struct vm_area_struct *vma ) { // extract the paramers we will need from the ‘vm_area_struct’ unsigned longregion_length = vma->vm_end – vma->vm_start; unsigned longregion_origin = vma->vm_pgoff * PAGE_SIZE; unsigned longphysical_addr = fb_base + region_origin; unsigned longuser_virtaddr = vma->vm_start; // sanity check: mapped region cannot extend past end of vram if ( region_origin + region_length > fb_size ) return –EINVAL; // tell the kernel not to try ‘swapping out’ this region to the disk vma->vm_flags |= VM_RESERVED; // tell the kernel to exclude this region from any core dumps vma->vm_flags |= VM_IO;

29. Driver’s code continued // invoke a helper-function that will set up the page-table entries if ( remap_pfn_range( vma, user_virtaddr, physical_addr >> 12, region_length, vma->vm_page_prot ) ) return –EAGAIN; return0; // SUCCESS }

30. Demo: ‘rotation.cpp’ This application-program will demonstrate use of our ‘vram.c’ device-driver’s ‘read()’, ‘write()’ and ‘llseek()’ methods (i.e., device-file operations) It will perform a rotation of the color-components (R,G,B) in every displayed ‘truecolor’ pixel: R  G G  B B  R After 3 times the screen will look normal again

31. Demo: ‘inherit.cpp’ This application-program will demonstrate use of the ‘mmap()’ method in our driver, and the fact that memory-mappings which a parent-process creates will be ‘inherited’ by a ‘child-process’ You will see a rectangular purple border drawn on your display -- provided the program-parameters match your screen

32. In-class exercise Can you adapt the ideas in ‘inherit.cpp’ to create a program (named ‘backward.cpp’) that will reverse the ordering of the pixels in each screen-row? … …