1. ASTR100 (Spring 2008) Introduction to Astronomy Other Galaxies Prof. D.C. Richardson Sections 0101-0106

2. Our deepest images of the universe show a great variety of galaxies, some of them billions of light-years away. Hubble Deep Field

3. Galaxies and Cosmology A galaxy’s age, its distance, and the age of the universe are all closely related. The study of galaxies is thus intimately connected with cosmology—the study of the structure and evolution of the universe.

4. What are the three major types of galaxies?

5. Irregular Galaxies Hubble Ultra Deep Field Spiral Galaxy Elliptical Galaxy

6. Spiral Galaxy disk bulge halo

7. Spheroidal Component: bulge & halo, old stars, few gas clouds. Disk Component: stars of all ages, many gas clouds.

8. Blue-white color indicates ongoing star formation. Red-yellow color indicates older star population. Disk Component: stars of all ages, many gas clouds. Spheroidal Component: bulge & halo, old stars, few gas clouds.

9. Thought Question Why does ongoing star formation lead to a blue-white appearance? A.There aren’t any red or yellow stars. B.Short-lived blue stars outshine others. C.Gas in the disk scatters blue light.

10. Thought Question Why does ongoing star formation lead to a blue-white appearance? A.There aren’t any red or yellow stars. B.Short-lived blue stars outshine others. C.Gas in the disk scatters blue light.

11. Barred Spiral Galaxy: Has a bar of stars across the bulge.

12. Lenticular Galaxy: Has a disk like a spiral galaxy but much less dusty gas (intermediate between spiral and elliptical).

13. Elliptical Galaxy: All spheroidal component, virtually no disk component. Red-yellow color indicates older star population.

14. Blue-white color indicates ongoing star formation. Irregular Galaxy: Neither spiral nor elliptical.

15. Hubble’s galaxy classes Spheroid Dominates Disk Dominates

16. How are galaxies grouped together?

17. Spiral galaxies are often found in groups of galaxies (up to a few dozen galaxies per group).

18. Elliptical galaxies are much more common in huge clusters of galaxies (hundreds to thousands of galaxies).

19. How do we measure the distances to galaxies?

20. Brightness alone does not provide enough information to measure distance.

21. Step 1 Determine size of solar system using radar.

22. Step 2 Determine distances of stars out to a few hundred light-years using parallax.

23. Recall relationship between apparent brightness, luminosity, and distance: Luminosity Brightness = 4 (distance) 2 A standard candle is an object whose luminosity we know without knowing its distance. E.g., since we now know how luminous an O star is, we can compute such a star’s distance from its apparent brightness.

24. Step 3 Apparent brightness of star cluster’s main sequence tells us its distance. Distance found by parallax. 2.75× further away.

25. Knowing a star cluster’s distance, we can determine the luminosity of each type of star within it.

26. Thought Question Which kind of stars are best for measuring large distances? A.High-luminosity stars. B.Low-luminosity stars.

27. Thought Question Which kind of stars are best for measuring large distances? A.High-luminosity stars. B.Low-luminosity stars.

28. Cepheid variable stars are very luminous…

29. Cepheid Variable Stars The light curve of this Cepheid variable star shows that its brightness alternately rises and falls over a 50-day period.

30. Cepheid variable stars with longer periods have greater luminosities.

31. Step 4 Because the period of a Cepheid variable star tells us its luminosity, we can use these stars as standard candles.

32. Edwin Hubble, using Cepheids as standard candles, was the first to measure distances to other galaxies.

33. Measuring distances using Cepheids has been a key mission of the Hubble Space Telescope.

34. Hubble’s extra-sharp vision allows us to observe individual Cepheid variable stars in galaxies up to 100 million light- years away. Galaxy M100

35. Cepheid variable star in M100 with period ~ one month.

36. White-dwarf supernovae can also be used as standard candles. Using White-Dwarf Supernovae as Standard Candles

37. Step 5 Apparent brightness of a white-dwarf supernova tells us the distance to its galaxy (up to 10 billion light- years).

38. What is Hubble’s Law?

39. The Puzzle of “Spiral Nebulae” Before Hubble, some scientists argued that “spiral nebulae” were entire galaxies like our Milky Way, while others maintained they were smaller collections of stars within the Milky Way. The debate remained unsettled until someone finally measured their distances.

40. Hubble settled the debate by measuring the distance to the Andromeda Galaxy using Cepheid variables as standard candles.

41. Hubble also knew that the spectral features of virtually all galaxies are redshifted: they’re all moving away from us.

42. By measuring distances to galaxies, Hubble found that redshift and distance are related in a special way.

43. Hubble’s Law: recession speed = H 0 × distance.

44. speed H 0 distance = Step 6 Redshift of a galaxy tells us its distance through Hubble’s Law:

45. Distances of the farthest galaxies are measured from redshifts.

46. We measure galaxy distances using a chain of interdependent techniques.

47. How do distance measurements tell us the age of the universe?

48. Thought Question Your friend leaves your house. She later calls you on her cell phone, saying that she’s been driving at 60 miles an hour directly away from you the whole time and is now 60 miles away. How long has she been gone? A.1 minute. B.30 minutes. C.60 minutes. D.120 minutes.

49. Thought Question Your friend leaves your house. She later calls you on her cell phone, saying that she’s been driving at 60 miles an hour directly away from you the whole time and is now 60 miles away. How long has she been gone? A.1 minute. B.30 minutes. C.60 minutes. D.120 minutes.

50. Thought Question You observe a galaxy moving away from you at 0.1 light-years per year, and it is now 1.4 billion light-years away from you. How long has it taken to get there? A.1 million years. B.14 million years. C.10 billion years. D.14 billion years.

51. Thought Question You observe a galaxy moving away from you at 0.1 light-years per year, and it is now 1.4 billion light-years away from you. How long has it taken to get there? A.1 million years. B.14 million years. C.10 billion years. D.14 billion years.

52. Hubble’s constant tells us the age of the universe because it relates speeds and distances of all galaxies. distance speed Age = ~ 1 / H 0

53. The expansion rate appears to be the same everywhere in space. The universe has no center and no edge (as far as we can tell).

54. One example of something that expands but has no center or edge is the surface of a balloon. Hubble Expansion of the Universe

55. Cosmological Principle Matter is evenly distributed on very large scales in the universe. No center and no edges. Not proved, but consistent with all observations to date. The universe looks about the same no matter where you are within it.

56. Distances between faraway galaxies change while light travels. Astronomers think in terms of lookback time rather than distance.

57. Expansion stretches photon wavelengths causing a cosmological redshift directly related to lookback time.

58. Cosmological Horizon Maximum lookback time of 14 billion years (the age of the Universe) limits how far we can see.