1. Verbal Learning...the acquisition and retention of verbal information In everyday terms, it’s like “memorization”. A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Two Basic Tasks Serial Learning: learning to reproduce the items in a list in their original order (for example, learning the letters of the alphabet). Paired-Associate Learning: learning to make a verbal response when a specific stimulus is presented (for example, learning foreign language vocabulary: stimulus = foreign word, response = English word).

2. Verbal Learning A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Serial or Paired-Associate Learning? Hi, my name’s Kelly. Next time you see her, will you remember her name? This is ____________ Learning. Stimulus = face Response = name Paired-Associate

3. Verbal Learning A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Serial or Paired-Associate Learning? This is ____________ Learning. Stimulus = letters Response = sound Paired-Associate Phonics (“Sounding the Word Out”) Learning Word Recognition Skills: Boys and girls, who knows what sound goes with these letters? Ch

4. Verbal Learning A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Serial or Paired-Associate Learning? This is ____________ Learning. The letters of a word are like items in a list. Serial Learning to Spell Who can spell the word, “necessary”? nsseacary ?

5. Verbal Learning A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Hermann Ebbinghaus His book, On Memory (1885), showed how experimental methods could be used to measure the learning and retention of verbal items arranged in lists. His methods applied the theory of learning developed by “empiricist” philosophers, who said we acquire knowledge by associating (connecting) things that repeatedly occur closely together in time.

6. Verbal Learning A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Ebbinghaus rigorously controlled the timing, the order of presentation, and number of practice trials, all key factors in learning according to associative theory. Amazingly, he served as his own subject! But his findings have been repeated countless times in conventional experiments. Rather than memorize poems, speeches, or other writings, he created lists of artificial verbal units called “nonsense syllables” like the ones on the left. Each consisted of a consonant, then a vowel, then a consonant.

7. Verbal Learning A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z He assumed he would be equally unfamiliar with each nonsense syllable at the beginning of practice. One list would be like any other. This was a form of experimental control. We now know that his assumption was wrong. Nonsense syllables, like words, have degrees of meaning. Researchers measure the “meaningfulness” of an item in terms of how readily it reminds you of a word, like how many words you can think of in 10 seconds. The more meaningful items are, the faster they’re learned and the longer they’re remembered.

8. Verbal Learning A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Ebbinghaus directed his attention to one nonsense syllable at a time, going from one item to the next according to a time schedule. It’s hard to do. Researchers working in the Ebbinghaus tradition developed methods that showed subjects only one item at a time so they could control the order and timing of presentation.

9. Verbal Learning A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Serial Learning The first item the subject sees is an arbitrary symbol, like *, then they see one item at a time for a certain number of seconds... Anticipation Procedure * fohjurbok

10. Verbal Learning A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Serial Learning From Trial 2 on, when subjects see a certain item, they try to say the item that comes right after it; they “anticipate” the next item. Anticipation Procedure * foh Subject says... foh jurjur bok

11. Verbal Learning A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Serial Learning Each item that appears provides feedback on the previous response and acts as a cue for saying the next response. Anticipation Procedure bok taw Subject says...

12. Verbal Learning A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Serial Learning Cognitive researchers favor a procedure in which subjects receive the complete list during a study trial. They can look at any items in any order for as long as they want. Complete-List Procedure Nonsense! Right after the study trial there’s a test trial where the subject tries to recite or write all the items in their original order. They get no feedback until the next study trrial.

13. Verbal Learning A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Paired-Associate Learning Each pair of items is presented in a 2-step procedure. In the first step, the stimulus is presented alone, and and the subject tries to state the response that goes with it. In the second step, the stimulus and response items appear together. This gives the subject feedback and another opportunity to learn the association. Anticipation Procedure

14. Verbal Learning A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Paired-Associate Learning Stimulus Anticipation Procedure Response fohfoh jurbokbok taw

15. Verbal Learning A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Paired-Associate Learning Study-Test Procedure There are two kinds of trials. On a study trial, the subject sees each complete pair of items. Then there is a test trial in which the subject is presented the first item of each pair and is asked to state the item that goes with it. Study Trial foh - jur bok - taw Test Trial foh - bok -

16. Verbal Learning A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Free Recall This procedure resembles serial learning. You are given a list of words and immediately afterwards you try to recall them. But it can be in any order. It doesn’t have to be the original order like in serial learning. It’s like remembering a shopping list: cereal, apples, milk, bread, cookies. When you get to the store, it doesn’t matter what order you remember them in as long as you remember them all.

17. Verbal Learning A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Ebbinghaus counted the number of study trials he needed to reach a criterion of mastery: one recitation of the list without an error. The more trials it took to learn a list, the slower would be the rate of learning. Measuring Learning (Acquisition)

18. Verbal Learning A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Ebbinghaus developed a measure called the savings score. After learning a list, he would wait a period of time (the retention interval) and see if he could recite the list without an error. Measuring Memory (Retention) If he missed anything, he would practice the list until he met the criterion again (relearning). He then compared the number of trials to learn the list with the number of trials to relearn it, using the following formula:

19. Verbal Learning A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Measuring Memory (Retention) Savings Score Number of Trials to Learn – Number of Trials to Relearn Number of Trials to Learn X 100 For example, suppose it took Ebbinghaus 12 trials to learn a list. Then, 24 hours later it took him 4 trials to relearn it. The savings score would be _____ ? (Multiplying by 100 makes the score a per cent.)

20. Verbal Learning A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Measuring Memory (Retention) Savings Score 12 – 4 12 X 100 = 67% This means that 67% of the original information was retained during the interval between learning and testing.