1. Chapter 7 Developmental Psychology

2. What is Developmental Psychology?
Developmental Psychology: the scientific study of biological, social, and personality development across the life span.
Development: progressive changes in behavior and abilities.
Change may be qualitative (different kinds of abilities) or quantitative (different amounts or levels of an ability)
Changes in functioning may be physical (body size & shape; brain anatomy and physiology, hormones, etc.) or psychological (cognitive or socioemotional)
Developmental changes are tied to age and are generally permanent.

3. Nature vs. Nurture
The fundamental question: what causes development, nature or nurture?
Nature: Development is programmed in genetically and follows a biological blueprint.
Nurture: Development is determined by how the child is raised, thus by the environment

4. Stages in Developmental Theories
Most developmental theories are stage theories.
In stage theories, the child’s capabilities differ significantly from one stage to another.
Major changes occur between stages, rather than small, continuous changes

5. Typical Stages in Developmental Theories

6. Topics to Explore Prenatal Development & Infancy Cognitive Development
Moral & Social Development

7. Part 1 Prenatal Development & Infancy

8. Heredity & Genetics
DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid): Molecular structure, shaped like a double helix that contains coded genetic information
Genes: Specific areas on a strand of DNA that carry hereditary information. Genes are segments of chromosomes located in each cell nucleus
The sperm and ovum (egg cell) each contain 23 chromosomes.
When a sperm cell and ovum unite, they form a single cell called a zygote, which contains 46 chromosomes.
All cells in the body develop from this original cell, and contain the same 46 chromosomes.

9. Graphic: DNA

10. Graphic: Genetic Transmission

11. Example of Heredity: Temperament
Temperament: The physical “core” of personality
Temperamental Types:
Easy Children: 40 %; relaxed and agreeable
Difficult Children: 10 %; moody, intense, easily angered
Slow-to-Warm-Up Children: 15 %; restrained, unexpressive, shy
Remaining Children: Do not fit into any specific category

12. Twins
Monozygotic (identical) twins: One ovum is fertilized by one sperm to form one zygote. Early in development, the zygote splits entirely in half, forming two identical zygotes that develop into two identical babies. The genes of identical twins are identical.
Dizygotic (fraternal) twins: Two ova are fertilized by two different sperm to form two zygotes, which develop into two non-identical babies. The genes of fraternal twins are no more alike than any pair of siblings.

13. Stages in Prenatal Development
Zygotic: from conception through 2nd week, major task = cell division and implantation
Embryonic: from 3rd through 8th week; major task = developmental of most body systems
Fetal: from 9th through 40th week; major task = growth

14. Environmental Influence
Environment (“Nurture”): All external conditions that affect development
Sensitive Periods: A period of increased sensitivity to environmental influences; also, a time when certain events must occur for normal development to take place
Teratogen: an environmental agent (e.g., drugs or viruses), diseases (e.g., diabetes), or physical condition (e.g., malnutrition) that impairs prenatal development

15. Deprivation & Enrichment
Deprivation: Lack of normal stimulation, nutrition, comfort, or love
Enrichment: When an environment is deliberately made more complex and intellectually stimulating

16. Growth of Brain Synapses

17. The Mozart Effect?
Rauscher & Shaw (1998) claimed that after college students listened to Mozart they scored higher on a spatial reasoning test
Original experiment done with adults; tells us nothing about children
What effect would listening to other styles of music have?
Most researchers unable to duplicate the effect
Conclusion: Those who listened to Mozart were just more alert or in a better mood

18. Neonatal Reflexes
Grasping Reflex: If an object is placed in the infant’s palm, she’ll grasp it automatically (all reflexes are automatic responses; i.e., they come from nature, not nurture).
Rooting Reflex: Lightly touch the infant’s cheek and he’ll turn toward the object and attempt to nurse; helps infant find nipple or food.
Sucking Reflex: Touch an object or nipple to the infant’s mouth and she’ll make rhythmic sucking movements.
Moro Reflex: If a baby’s position is abruptly changed or if he is startled by a loud noise, he will make a hugging motion.

19. Motor Development

20. Motor Homunculus
“homunculus” = “a diminutive human being”

21. Part 2 Cognitive Development

22. Language Acquisition Cooing: Repetition of vowel sounds by infants
Babbling: Repetition of meaningless language sounds (e.g., babababa)
Holophrases: child expresses a complete thought in single words.
Telegraphic Speech: Two word sentences that communicate a single idea (e.g., Want yogurt)
Overextension (extending word beyond adult definition) and underextension (restricting word to less than adult definition)

23. Communication in Infancy
Parents and infants develop system of shared signals, including touching, vocalizing, and smiling.
Signals establish a pattern of communication turn-taking, sending and receiving messages.
Infants gradually develop ability to initiate activities, including communication.
Before infants learn verbal words, they learn to use gestures as communication.

24. Parentese
Parentese (Motherese): Pattern of speech used when talking to infants
Characterized by:
raised voice (higher pitch)
short, simple sentences
repetition
slow rate of speech
exaggerated voice inflections
Parentese found in parents speaking all languages. It helps parents get babies’ attention and functions to help them learn language.

25. Jean Piaget & Cognitive Development
Piaget believed that all children passed through a set series of stages during their cognitive development; like Freud, he was a Stage Theorist.
Assimilation: Application of existing mental patterns to new situations.
Accommodation: Existing ideas are changed to accommodate new information or experiences.

26. Jean Piaget

27. Stage 1: Sensory-Motor Period
Sensorimotor (0-2 Years): All sensory input and motor responses are coordinated; infants learn to coordinate their actions to what they see, hear, touch.
Infants develop simple understanding of cause-effect.
Infants develop concept of objects, understanding of what objects can do and relationships between objects.
Object Permanence: Concept that objects still exist when they are out of sight.
Intellectual development in this stage is largely nonverbal.

28. Graphic: Object Permanence

29. Stage 2: Preoperational Period
Preoperations (2-7 Years): Children begin to use language and think symbolically, BUT their thinking is still intuitive and egocentric.
From 2 to 4 years, preoperational children begin developing concepts (e.g., time, space, relationships, colors)
Egocentric: Child is able to consider only one point of view at a time. Usually children consider their own viewpoint, and cannot incorporate the viewpoints of others.
Beginning at 4 years, children have very primitive logic relating two factors at a time (functional logic)

30. Stage 3: Concrete Operational Period
Concrete Operations (7-11 years): Children become able to use concepts of time, space, volume, and number BUT in ways that remain simplified and concrete, not abstract.
Conservation: Understanding that mass, weight, and volume (and other dimensions) remain unchanged when the shape or appearance of objects changes
Reversibility of Thought: Relationships involving equality or identity can be reversed.
Other logical abilities: classification, measurement, seriation

31. Stage 4: Formal Operational Period
Formal Operations (11 Years and Up): Thinking now includes abstract, theoretical, and hypothetical ideas.
Abstract Ideas: Concepts and examples removed from specific examples and concrete situations.
Hypothetical Possibilities: Suppositions, guesses, or projections.
Deductive reasoning: Teenagers can make deductive conclusions based on relationship between variables.

32. Part 3 Moral & Social Development

33. Moral Development: Kohlberg’s Theory
Preconventional
morality
Right and wrong determined by consequences
Comply with rules to avoid punishment or gain rewards
Conventional
Right and wrong determined by authority
Comply with rules to gain approval or to do duty to uphold laws
Postconventional
Morality
Right and wrong determined by ethics & enforced by social contract
Comply with rules to maintain social order, unless rules violate universal ethics

34. Development of Emotions

35. Emotional Expressions

36. Attachment Secure: Stable and positive emotional bond
Separation Anxiety: Crying and signs of fear when a child is left alone or with a stranger; appears around 8-12 months
Contact Comfort: Pleasant and reassuring feeling babies get from touching something warm and soft, such as their mother
Quality of Attachment
Secure: Stable and positive emotional bond
Insecure-Avoidant: Tendency to avoid reunion with parent or caregiver
Insecure-Ambivalent: High resistance to being separated from parent; unwilling to leave parent
Insecure-Disoriented: inconsistent reaction to parent’s absence and return

37. Parenting Styles
Authoritarian: demanding; expect unquestioned obedience; communicate poorly with children
Permissive: make few demands on child; overly respon-sive to child’s desires
Authoritarian: demanding in setting high expectations; responsive to child’s desires; communicates well with children
Uninvolved: spend little time with children and minimize their emotional involvement

38. Erik Erikson

39. Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development
Stage One: Trust versus Mistrust: (birth to 1 year)
Trust: Established when babies given adequate warmth, touching, love, and physical care
Mistrust: Caused by inadequate or unpredictable care and by cold, indifferent, and rejecting parents
Stage Two: Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt (1 to 2 years)
Autonomy: Doing things for themselves, making choices
Shame & Doubt: Children who are not allowed to make their own choices begin to doubt themselves

40. Psychosocial Development, continued
Stage Three: Initiative versus Guilt (preschool years)
Initiative: Children learn to choose their own activities, to initiate activities (but not necessarily complete them!)
Guilt: If parents don’t allow children to initiate activities, children develop sense of guilt when they do
Stage Four: Industry versus Inferiority (elementary school years)
Industry: Occurs when child is praised for productive activities
Inferiority: Occurs if child’s efforts are regarded as messy or inadequate

41. Psychosocial Development, continued
Stage Five: Identity versus Role Confusion (Adolescence)
Identity: For adolescents; problems answering, “Who am I?”
Role Confusion: Occurs when adolescents are unsure of where they are going
Stage Six: Intimacy versus Isolation (Early Adulthood)
Intimacy: Ability to care about others and to share experiences with them
Isolation: Being alone and uncared for in life

42. Psychosocial Development, continued
Stage Seven: Generativity versus Stagnation (Mid-Adulthood)
Generativity: Interest in guiding the next generation
Stagnation: When one is only concerned with one’s own needs and comforts
Stage Eight: Integrity versus Despair (Old Age)
Integrity: Self-respect; developed when people have lived richly and responsibly:
Despair: Occurs when previous life events are viewed with regret; experiences heartache and remorse