1. The Social Dimensions of Crime 1. Age and Crime 2. Class and Crime 3. Gender and Crime 4. Race and Crime

2. Age and Crime Age is inversely related to criminality Younger people (regardless class, race, sex) commit crime more often than their older peers

3. The peak age of onset of offending is between 8 and 14 Prevalence of offending peaks in the late teenage years (between 15 and 19) The peak of desistance from offending is between 20 and 29 What do we know from criminological research about Age and Crime? (Farringdon, 2003)

4. Age-graded Theory 8-9 years15-19 years45-55 years

5. Age and Crime How can this phenomenon be explained?

6. Early onset predicts a long career and many offences Small fraction of the population, “chronic offenders” commit a large fraction of all crimes Most offences up to the late teenage years are committed with others, whereas most offences from age 20 onwards are committed alone Reasons given for offending up to late teenage years: utilitarian, excitement/joy, relive boredom, anger Reasons for later offending are mostly utilitarian Age and Crime

7. Several competing explanations Maturation reform (hormones, burning out, aging causes desistance) Life-course view (Sampson, Laub, 1993) – based on social bond theory, turning points in life M. Warr “Number of friends and age” Moffitt’s typology (Adolescents-limited, life-course persistent, risk factors: neuropsychological deficit, hyperactivity, impulsivity, low self-control) Matza’s Drift Theory (Neutralization) Latent Trait theory (Gottfredson and Hirschi) - a person’s level of self-control) Opportunity might change but self-control is stable

8. Age-Graded Life-Course Theory Causal relationship between early delinquent offending and later adult deviant behavior is not solely a product of individual characteristics Social events may change some individuals while others continue to offend Informal social bonds to family and employment during adulthood explain changes in criminality

9. Age-Graded Life-Course Theory

10. Life-course model Social bonds created by strong attachment to a spouse, military, job stability and commitment, and employee-employer interdependence reduce crime The social ties embedded in adult transitions (i.e. marital attachment and job stability) explain variations in crime

11. Latent Trait Model Low self-control is evident in early childhood through specific personality characteristics Inability to postpone gratification, a low tolerance for frustration, high levels of risk-taking behavior, shamelessness

12. Latent Trait Model Self-control develops through parental emotional investment in the child Monitoring the child's behavior, recognizing deviance when it occurs, and punishing the child Parental emotional investment is necessary in order to activate the self-control

13. Latent Trait Model Gottfredson and Hirschi (1990) defined self-control as the degree to which a person is “vulnerable to the temptations of the moment” (p. 87). They viewed Low Self-Control as a behavior pattern arising from ineffective socialization early in life This pattern was said to be quite stable, when established, and was cited as the primary individual- level factor explaining crime People with low self-control have unstable marriages, jobs, and friends

14. Social Class System (Warner's model) The American class structure, for all the social mobility (moving up) that's supposed to be going on, has really been fairly rigid and fixed

15. Class System UPPER-UPPER is a class that we know little about ("Less than 2% of the population controls over 65% of the wealth“). They have low visibility, luxurious living, and a lot of inherited wealth (which they usually keep within their own social class). LOWER-UPPER is a class of the new rich, consisting of lottery winners, self-made billionaires, savvy investors. They tend to seek out visibility and high- prestige occupations, often in politics or higher education (they like honorary degrees).

16. Class System UPPER-MIDDLE class is living the American Dream, and they spend most of their time worrying about how "good" their possessions are; their house, their neighborhood, their city. LOWER-MIDDLE is the class which is "getting by" or "living paycheck to paycheck“.

17. Class System UPPER-LOWER or the Working Class is the largest class in America. They make up the bulk of the labor force in both skilled, semi-skilled, and service professions. Apartment or mobile home dwellers, usually, this group is living in so much debt nowadays that it's almost like economic slavery They have extremely strong pride and a lot of contact with the criminal justice system.

18. Class System LOWER-LOWER or the Underclass is a fairly permanent class that is so dependent on government services, subsidies, and assistance that they might even starve if not for some kind of intervention that always seems to be needed Poor health and lots of contact with the criminal justice system occur regularly with this class

19. System of Values MIDDLE CLASS VALUES Deferred gratification Verbal skills Rationality Asceticism Ambition Individual Responsibility & Talent Courtesy & Chivalry LOWER CLASS VALUES Instant gratification Motor skills Spontaneity- Expressiveness Sociability Generosity Childhood-like approach to Responsibility Sensuality & Sexuality

20. Social Class and Crime Official statistics indicate that crime rates in inner-city, high-poverty areas are higher than those in suburban areas Self-reports of prison inmates show that prisoners are members of the lower class Self reports of adolescents found little or no relationship between social class and crime

21. Possible Explanations W. Chambliss’s study of “Saints and Roughnecks” Less visible, public bias, better demeanor Who you are is more important than what you do

22. Gender and Crime Women commit a small share of all crimes Their crimes are fewer, less serious, more rarely professional and less likely to be repeated Females are less likely to be arrested if they cry, express concern for their children, or claim to be “led” by men (DeFleur, 1990) In consequence, women formed a small proportion of prison populations

23. Gender and Crime Most victims and perpetrators in homicides are male: Male offender/Male victim 65.1% Male offender/Female victim 22.6% Female offender/Male victim 9.9% Female offender/Female victim 2.4%

24. The gender distribution of homicide victims and offenders differs by type of homicide Women are particularly at risk for intimate killings, sex-related homicides, and murder by arson or poison. Women are more likely to commit murder as a result of an argument or murder by poison.

25. Gender and crime How can we explain gender differences in criminal behavior?

26. Differential socialization Hagan’s power control theory (patriarchal families vs egalitarian families) “liberation hypothesis” (competitiveness, increased opportunities to offend, equal in everything) Gender and crime

27. Racial differences exist, with blacks disproportionately represented among homicide victims and offenders

28. Family Structure Research on family structure has usually examined the impact of broken homes on delinquency. Research on family structure has usually examined the impact of broken homes on delinquency. Smith(1978) found that in the majority of African American homes father absence had no outcome or positive effects. Smith(1978) found that in the majority of African American homes father absence had no outcome or positive effects. Social and economic factors influence the role of the father in the family. Social and economic factors influence the role of the father in the family. Future research should look at the strength and nature of relationships within the family. Future research should look at the strength and nature of relationships within the family.

29. Most murders are intraracial

30. Homicide victimization rates by age, gender, and race, 1976-2002