1. Chapter 6 Work Motivation
Michael A. Hitt
C. Chet Miller
Adrienne Colella
Slides by Ralph R. Braithwaite

2. W.L. Gore & Associates – Four Guiding Principles
Wilbert Gore
W.L. Gore & Associates – Four Guiding Principles
The ability to make one’s own commitments and keep them
Freedom to encourage, help, and allow other associates to grow in knowledge, skill and scope of responsibility
Consultation with others before undertaking actions that could impact the reputation of the company
Fairness to each other and everyone with whom contact is made
Exploring Behavior in Action

3. Work Motivation at W.L. Gore & Associates
Wilbert Gore
Work Motivation at W.L. Gore & Associates
What are your thoughts about Bill Gore’s lattice structure?
What are your reactions to the four principles that govern behavior?
Would these principles work in other organizations? Why or why not?
Do you think the company can maintain its philosophy as it continues to grow?
Exploring Behavior in Action

4. Knowledge Objectives
Define work motivation and explain why it is important to organizational success.
Discuss how managers can use Maslow’s need hierarchy and ERG theory to motivate associates.
Describe how need for achievement, need for affiliation, and need for power relate to work performance and motivation.
Explain how Herzberg’s two-factor theory of motivation has influenced current management practice.
More

5. Knowledge Objectives
Discuss the application of expectancy theory to motivation.
Understand equity theory and procedural justice, and discuss how fairness judgments influence work motivation.
Explain how goal-setting theory can be used to motivate associates.
Describe how jobs can be enriched and how job enrichment can enhance motivation.
Based on all major theories of work motivation, describe specific actions that can be taken to increase and sustain employee motivation.

6. What is Motivation?
Forces coming from within a person that account for the willful direction, intensity, and persistence of the person’s efforts toward achieving specific goals, where achievement is not due solely to ability or to environmental factors

7. Performance = f (Ability x Motivation)
Equation
Person’s level of performance is a function (f) of both ability and motivation:
Performance = f (Ability x Motivation)
Environmental factors also play a role

8. Theories of Motivation
Content Theories
Maslow’s need hierarchy
Alderfer’s ERG theory
McClelland’s need theory
Herzberg’s two-factor theory
Process Theories
Expectancy theory
Equity theory
Goal-setting theory

9. Abraham Maslow
Abraham Maslow
Maslow's
Need Hierarchy

10. Maslow’s Need Hierarchy
Must work your way up…
Self- Actualization
Esteem Needs
Social and Belongingness Needs
Safety Needs
People motivated by desire to satisfy specific needs, arranged in a hierarchical order of prepotency. Lower level needs must be satisfied before a person can be motivated by higher level needs
Physiological needs – basic survival needs – food, water, air and shelter
Safety needs – need to be safe and secure in the environment – both physical and psychological
Social and belongingness needs – interaction with and acceptance by other people, desire for affection, affiliation, friendship and love
Esteem needs – relate to feelings of self-respect and self-worth, along with the respect and esteem from peers
Self-actualization – a desire to fulfill one’s potential, maximizing the use of one’s skills and abilities
Physiological Needs

11. Clayton Alderfer
Alderfer's
ERG Theory

12. ERG Theory Existence Needs Relatedness Needs Growth Needs
Satisfaction and Progression
Frustration and Regression
People are motivated by three hierarchically ordered types of needs: existence needs (E), relatedness needs (R), and growth needs (G). Usually people must satisfy needs at the lower levels before being strongly motivated by higher-level needs. However, frustration at higher levels can lead people to be motivated by lower-level needs

13. Comparison of Two Theories
Maslow’s Need Hierarchy
Physiological Needs
Safety Needs
Social and Belongingness Needs
Esteem Needs
Self- Actualization
Existence Needs
Relatedness Needs
Growth Needs
Alderfer’s ERG Theory
Two differences between Maslow’s and Alderfer’s theories:
Notion of prepotency is not fixed in ERG theory - May become concerned about a higher order need before lower order need is satisfied and May still have strong desire to satisfy lower order need, even when the higher order need seems most important.
Even when a need is satisfied, it may remain as the dominant motivator if the next need in the hierarchy cannot be satisfied (frustration-regression process).
Adapted from Exhibit 6-1: Maslow’s Need Hierarchy and Alderfer’s ERG Theory Compared

14. McClelland’s
David C. McClelland
Theory of Needs

15. McClelland’s Theory of Needs
Achievement
Power
Affiliation
People with a high need for achievement - Prefer to set their own goals. Set goals of moderate difficulty that are achievable. Like to solve problems rather than leave the results to chance. Are more interested in achieving the goal than in the associated rewards. Prefer situations in which they receive regular, concrete feedback on their performance. Are positive thinkers who find workable solutions to life’s hurdles and challenges. Take a strong personal responsibility for their work.
People with a high need for affiliation - Have a strong desire to be liked and to stay on good terms with most other people. Tend not to make good managers because they often treat different people in different ways (for example, may apply inconsistent rules). Are more concerned with initiating and maintaining personal relationships than with focusing on the task at hand.
People with a high need for institutional power - Are concerned about the functioning of the organization and have a desire to serve others. Are controlled in their exercise of power.
People with a high need for personal power - Desire to influence others for their own personal gain. Are more impulsive in exercising power. Show little concern for other people. Are focused on obtaining symbols of prestige and status (such as big offices).

16. Conclusion
People with a high need for institutional power are particularly good at
Increasing morale
Creating clear expectations
Getting others to work for the good of the organization
Effective managers have both a high need for achievement and a high need for institutional power

17. Managerial Advice
Managers Over the Edge
Why do you think there have been changes in the need for achievement over the last 20+ years?
Do you agree or disagree with the two reasons (coerciveness and shortcuts) given that can cause problems?
It is suggested that understanding needs and managing needs are two guidelines that will help high-achievement managers. Do you agree or disagree with this idea?

18. Frederick Herzberg
Herzberg's
Two-Factor Theory

19. Two-Factor Theory
Emphasizes two sets of rewards or outcomes – those related to job satisfaction and those related to job dissatisfaction
The two sets are not opposite ends of the same continuum but are independent states
Job factors leading to satisfaction are different from those leading to dissatisfaction, and vice versa

20. Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
Hygiene Factors
Motivators
Motivators – also called satisfiers, lead to greater job satisfaction
Hygiene factors – also call dissatisfiers, when absent or missing lead to job dissatisfaction

21. Two-Factor Theory Motivators Hygiene Factors
When increased, lead to greater satisfaction
When deficient, lead to greater dissatisfaction
Achievement
Recognition
Responsibility
Opportunity for advancement or promotion
Challenging work
Potential for personal growth
Pay
Technical supervision
Working conditions
Company policies and procedures
Interpersonal relationships with others
Status
Security

22. Process Theories
Expectancy
Equity
Goal-Setting

23. Expectancy Theory MF = E x  (I x V) MF = MF = Motivational Force
Victor Vroom
MF = E x  (I x V)
MF = Motivational Force
E = Expectancy
I = Instrumentality
V = Valence V1 I1 I2 I3
Outcome V2
Effort
Performance E
Outcome
MF =
Expectancy theory – Vroom’s theory that suggests motivation is a function of an individual’s expectancy that a given amount of effort will lead to a particular level of performance, instrumentality judgments (perceived connections) that indicate performance will lead to certain outcomes, and the valence (value) of outcomes.
Expectancy - subjective probability that effort will lead to performance
Instrumentality - subjective probability that a given level of performance will lead to certain outcomes
Valence - An Individual’s expected satisfaction associated with each outcome resulting from performance V3
Outcome
Adapted from Exhibit 6-2: Expectancy Theory

24. Expectancy Theory To increase motivation
Heighten expectancy by increasing associates’ beliefs that exerting effort will lead to higher levels of performance
Increase instrumentalities by clearly linking high performance to outcomes
Increase valence by providing outcomes that are highly valued

25. Equity Theory
Motivation is based on a person’s assessment of the ratio of the outcomes received (pay, status) for inputs on the job (effort, ability) compared to the same ratio for a comparison other
My Outcomes
Other’s Outcomes
vs.
My inputs
Other’s Inputs

26. Equity Theory Perceived inequity, employees may:
Increase or decrease inputs
Change their outcomes
Distort perceptions of inputs and/or outcomes
Distort perceptions of other’s inputs and/or outcomes
Change the referent others
Leave the organization

27. Reactions to Inequity
Sensitives – pay a great deal of attention to outcome-input ratios, motivated to resolve any inequity – favorable or unfavorable
Benevolents – tolerant of inequity that is unfavorable but not comfortable with inequity that favors them
Entitleds – do not tolerate unfavorable inequity but are comfortable with inequity that favors them

28. Reactions to Equity
Feelings of equity frequently lead to outcome satisfaction and job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and organizational citizenship behaviors.
Organizational Citizenship – an associate’s willingness to engage in organizationally important behaviors that go beyond prescribed job duties – helping co-workers, expending extra effort, etc.

29. Distributive Justice
A form of justice that relates to perceptions of fairness in outcomes. Often tied to perceptions of inequity.

30. Procedural Justice
The degree to which people think the procedures used to determine outcomes are fair. Some rules:
Based on accurate information
Formal grievance procedures
Procedures free from bias
Ethical code
Procedures applied consistently
Treated with respect
Procedural justice icon comes in on mouse click. Arrows and rules come in automatically at two second intervals.
Procedural Justice
Voice in the decision process
Given reasons for decisions

31. Edwin Locke
Goal-Setting Theory
Challenging and specific goals increase human performance because they affect attention, effort, and persistence. To be effective, managers should address:
Goal difficulty
Goal specificity
Goal commitment
Participation in setting goals
Feedback
Goal difficulty – how difficult should the performance goal be. Should the goal be easy, moderately difficult, or very difficult to achieve?
Goal specificity – how specific should the expected outcome be (e.g. number of parts assembled), or can goals be more loosely defined (do your best)?
Goal commitment – what will make associates commit to goals?
Participation in setting goals – how important is it for associates to have input in selecting the goals and levels of performance to be achieved? If important, how should they be involved?
Feedback – to what extent should associates be informed of their progress as they work toward the performance goals?

32. Factors Affecting Goal Commitment
Factors Increasing the Desirability of Attaining a Given Goal
Factors Increasing the Perceived Ability of Attaining a Given Goal
Desirability Factors
The goal is set by or in conjunction with an appropriate authority figure
The goal fosters a sense of self-achievement and potential for development
The goal is set by or in conjunction with someone who is trustworthy
The goal is set by or in conjunction with someone who is supportive and promotes self-efficacy
Peers are committed to the goal
The goal assigner, if there is one, provides a rationale for the goal
The goal provides a challenge to prove oneself and meets ego needs
The goal is public
Perceived Ability Factors
There is high self-efficacy on the task
There are successful role models
The task is not impossibly difficult
Expectancy for success is high
There is competition with others
Adapted From Exhibit 6-3: Factors Affecting Goal Commitment

33. Conclusions
Feedback on performance, even in the absence of established goals, is likely to have a positive effect on motivation. Feedback is especially important when performance goals exist and when they are relatively difficult to achieve.

34. Experiencing Strategic OB
Making Visible Change
Thoughts?
Motivate employees by:
Providing a well-defined career path
Providing valued rewards and benefits
Setting specific, challenging goals
Providing support to help build client base
Avoiding layoffs of associates
Engaging associates in a variety of organizational decisions
John and Maryanne McCormack
Experiencing Strategic OB

35. Motivating Associates: Integration of TheoryX
Goal Setting
Equity
Expectancy
Herzberg
McClelland
Maslow ERG
Clarify Goals
Provide Feedback
Redesign Jobs
Tie to Performance
Find Rewards
Motivation Theories
Motivation Practices
Adapted from Exhibit 6-4: Motivation Factors Resulting from Motivation Theories

36. Motivating Associates: Integration of Theory
Find meaningful individual rewards
Tie rewards to performance
Redesign jobs – job enlargement and job enrichment
Provide feedback
Clarify expectations and goals – some use MBO
Tie individual rewards to individual needs - Individuals differ on what they find “rewarding.” Tailor individual rewards to individual needs. Do not overemphasize extrinsic rewards.
Tie rewards to performance - Performance is difficult to measure. Managers may lack flexibility in determining rewards. Intrinsic rewards may work when extrinsic rewards are unavailable.
Redesign jobs - Job enlargement: add tasks of equal complexity to increase variety and use of skills. Job enrichment: make jobs more motivating by increasing responsibility - Skill variety, Task identity, Task significance, Autonomy, Feedback.
Provide feedback - In conjunction with goals, Repeat at regular intervals, Provide information as to how performance can be improved, Come from a credible source, Focus on the performance, not the person.
Clarify expectations and goals - Motivating potential of goals, Align individual goals with organizational goals, and Management by Objectives – Throughout the organization, individuals meet with their managers to agree on expectations for the upcoming time period

37. Job Enrichment Skill Variety Task Identity Task Significance Autonomy
Richard Hackman
Skill Variety
Task Identity
Greg Oldham
Task Significance
Autonomy
Feedback
Skill variety – refers to the degree to which associates utilize a broad array of skills in doing their jobs – feeling of meaningfulness
Task identity – is the extent to which job performance results in an identifiable piece of work – feeling of meaningfulness
Task significance – is the extent to which a job has an impact on the organization – feeling of meaningfulness
Autonomy – means that the associate has the independence to schedule his or her own work and influence the procedures with which it is carried out – feeling of responsibility
Feedback – involves obtaining accurate information about performance – knowledge of results

38. Connecting People in the Workplace
Thoughts?
Deloitte recommends:
Design physical space that fosters connections
Build an organizational cushion of time and space
Cultivate communities
Stimulate rich networks of high-quality relationships
Provide collaboration tools
Experiencing Strategic OB

39. Provide Feedback
Feedback is most effective when provided in conjunction with goals
Feedback should be repeated and provided at regular intervals
Feedback should contain information about how associates can improve their performance
Feedback should come from a credible source
Feedback should focus on the performance, not the person

40. The Strategic Lens
Assume that you are managing a talented but unmotivated associate. Also assume that organizational resources needed for the job are generally sufficient. What factors would you consider first in attempting to motivate the associate? Why those factors?
A number of theories of motivation suggest that different rewards might be important to different people. How difficult is it to reward people differently for performing similar work?
How will your individual motivation affect your career opportunities?

41. Questions