1. Determining Diet

2. Spring Autumn

3. Se Co Mo Tanzania Lick 2.3 0.3 2.9 Topsoil 1.7 23 5.1 Peru Lick 0.5 13 0.7 Topsoil 0.2 13 0.7 Mills et al J Zool 2007. Micronutrients Natural Salt Licks

6. Carnivores Dietary Challenge?

7. Herbivores Dietary Challenge? Conifer needles Other plant berries cacti Beans/seeds Grass, tubers

8. Foregut fermenters Ruminants Hindgut fermenters CervidaeBovidae

9. Forbs Browse Grasses

11. Antilocapra americanaGrass Browse (shrub) Forb Availability Diet Preference

12. Measuring nitrogen In food In feces Bighorn ewe mass gain Fecal Nitrogen Change in Grouse Density Nitrogen (% dry matter)

13. Nitrogen in urine? Urea: Creatinine Ratio Protein in diet When is excess urea produced?

14. Ca oxalate Concentration Preference Javelina Example of Dietary Trade offs– Protein concentration

15. 8% protein diet 16% protein diet Assessing Condition

16. Body condition – Ungulate rumps

17. Kidney fat Bone marrow fat Furcula “wishbone” fat

18. Fat deposition can begin during summer in bucks but may be delayed 2 to 3 months in does because of the extreme energy demands placed on does by lactation The most appropriate application of fat indices is interpreting area differences within the same season and year or yearly differences within the same area and season KFI = Fat/Kidney X 100

19. Measuring Stress - Adrenals and Stress Hormones Free Ranging Captive Adrenal glands Fecal corticoids Terio et al. 2004