1. ACOUSTICS OF SINGING MUSICAL ACOUSTICS Science of Sound, Chapters 15, 17

2. THE VOCAL ORGANS

3. THE LARYNX (a)BACK VIEW (b) SIDE VIEW

4. VOCAL FOLDS CONTROL OF THE GLOTTAL OPENING BY THE ARYTENOIDS

5. SCHEMATIC OF THE BREATHING APPARATUS (b) CONTRACTION OF THE CHEST CAVITY BY THE INTERNAL INTERCOSTALS, ALONG WITH RAISING THE DIAPHRAM, CAUSES THE LUNGS TO CONTRACT (a) EXPANSION OF THE CHEST CAVITY BY THE EXTERNAL INTERCOSTALS ALONG WITH A FLATTENINGOF THE DIAPHRAM REDUCES THE PRESSURE AND CAUSES THE LUNGS TO EXPAND AND FILL WITH AIR

6. LUNG CAPACITY IN THE NORMAL YOUNG ADULT AND ITS SUBDIVISION INTO FUNCTIONING VOLUMES. THE VOLUME OF THE MALE LUNG IS INDICATED AT THE LEFT, THE FEMALE AT THE RIGHT

7. GLOTTAL WAVE FORMSPECTRUM

8. CLOSED PIPE MODEL OFTHE VOCAL TRACT

9. SIMPLE MODELS OF THE VOCAL TRACT

10. THE EFFECT OF FORMANTS ON SOUND

11. FIRST AND SECOND FORMANTS OF VOWELS

12. VOWEL /æ/ AS SPOKEN AND SUNG

13. FORMANT FREQUENCIES OF BASIC SUNG VOWELS M = men, W = women

14. SINGER’S FORMANT

15. SPECTRUM OF /α/ WITH HIGH AND LOW LARYNX

16. AVERAGE SPECTRUM ENVELOPES OF BASS IN SOLO AND CHOIR MODES

17. REGISTERS

18. FORMANT TUNING BY SOPRANOS F 1 AND F 2 ARE THE LOWEST FORMANTS OF VOWELS /i/, /α/, and /u/ SOLID LINES ARE THE FIRST 7 HARMONICS OF THE SUNG NOTE

19. SUBGLOTTAL PRESSURE IN SINGING

20. GLOTTAL WAVEFORMS: Rates of closure

21. RELATIVE STRENGTHS OF HARMONICS IN FEMALE AND MALE VOICES IN MODAL AND FALSETTO (MALE)

22. POPULAR SINGING LESS VOWEL MODIFICATION (“STRAIGHT TEXT”) NATURALNESS AT THE EXPENSE OF BEAUTY SONG IS FREELY CHANGED TO SHOW OFF SINGER’S VOICE BELTING – EXTENDING CHEST REGISTER ABOVE NORMAL RANGE COUNTRY SINGERS SPECTRA OF SPOKEN & SUNG VOWELS ARE SIMILAR “SINGER’S FORMANT” USUALLY MISSING

23. HARMONIC SINGING VOCAL TRACT IS SHAPED TO GIVE STRONG EMPHASIS TO CERTAIN HARMONICS HARMONIC CHANTNORMAL SINGING

24. CHOIR SINGING CHOIR VS. SOLO SINGING MALE SINGERS HAVE LESS PROMINENT SINGER’S FORMANT IN CHOIR MODE “SELF” TO “OTHERS” RATIO (S0R) CHOIR SINGERS PREFER SOR OF ABOUT 6dB (AVE) MEASURED SORs ARE 4 dB (SINGLE ROW) TO 3 d (DOUBLE ROW) IN OPERA CHORUS, SOR IS 10 –15 dB (Ternström, 2005) UNISONS /u/ IS MORE DIFFICULT TO MATCH TO A REFERENCE TONE THAN /ά/, PROBABLY BECAUSE OF LACK OF HARMONICS PITCH ACCURACY STANDARD DEVIATION IN A BASS SECTION FOUND TO BE 16 CENTS