1. Parties and the Constitutional System

2. Political Parties Endogenous institutions: created and reformed by their own members, who are in turn affected by the rules they create

3. Actors form parties to solve their collective action problems Transaction costs: the time and effort spend negotiating and reaching agreements with others Federalists and Democratic-Republicans form to reduce legislative transaction costs

4. Actors change parties to suit their own interests Martin Van Buren and Andrew Jackson

5. Actors change electoral rules to benefit them Apportionment Act of 1842

6. Result is two party system

7. Barriers to Third Party Success Single member district Plurality vote (not Proportional Representation)

8. Evidence for Duverger’s Law Electoral formula“Effective” # of political parties USAPlurality1.95 AustraliaMajoritarian2.5 NepalPlurality2.4 CanadaPlurality2.7 UKPlurality2.2 BelgiumPR8.54 NetherlandsPR5.14 AustriaPR3.54 GermanyPR3.31

9. Barriers to Third Party Success Single member district, plurality system Separated system (not parliamentary) Electoral College Ballot Access Restrictions Campaign Finance Laws Hard to raise money Hard to get media attention Hard to recruit strong candidates Most voters are loyal to a party Primary elections

10. Parties in history

11. 3 rd Party Candidates with 5% of Popular Vote YearNamePartyPercent 1848Van BurenFree Soil10% 1856FillmoreWhig-American21% 1860BreckinridgeSouthern Democrat18% 1860BellConstitutional Union12% 1892WeaverPopulist8% 1912TRProgressive27% 1924LaFolletteProgressive16% 1968WallaceAmer. Independent13% 1980AndersonIndependent6% 1992PerotReform19% 1996PerotReform8%

12. 8 minor party candidates have won Electoral Votes… 1832: Anti Masonic party, 7EV 1856: Know-Nothing Party, 8 EV 1860: Constitutional Union Party, 39 EV 1892: Populist Party, 22 EV 1912: Progressive Party, 88 EV 1924: Progressive Party, 13 EV 1948: Dixiecrat Party, 39 EV (2% of PV!) 1968: American Independent Party, 46 EV

13. Dominant parties in Congress Pro-Administration and Anti-Administration (1791- 1796) Federalists and Jeffersonian Republicans (1797- 1822) Adams and Jacksons (1827-1830) Jacksons and Anti-Jacksons (1828-1838) Democrats and Whigs (1835-1856) Democrats and Oppositions (1857-1858) Democrats and Republicans (1859-2007)

14. Third parties in Congress Anti Masonics American Nationals Populists Silver party Progressives Farmer-Labor

15. Why so many more third party successes in 19 th century?

16. 19 th vs. 20 th Century 3 rd Party Candidates 19 th Century Issue-based parties/ Grass roots parties Candidates join existing movement Party centered politics 20 th Century Personality-based campaigns Parties built around personalities and personal crusades Candidate centered politics