1. Combined Final Lecture Excerpts from Chapters 19 – 20, 22, 24 - 25

2. The Electroencephalogram (Chapter 19) The Electroencephalogram (EEG) –Measurement of generalized cortical activity –Noninvasive, painless –Diagnose neurological conditions such as epilepsy, sleep disorders, research

3. Recording Brain Waves –Electrodes to scalp, low-resistance connection –Connected to banks of amplifiers and recording devices –Voltage fluctuations measured (tens of microvolts) –Electrode pairs: Measure different brain regions –Set of simultaneous squiggles, voltage changes between electrode pairs The Electroencephalogram

4. EEG records very small electrical fields generated by synaptic currents in pyramidal cells The Electroencephalogram

5. Generating Large EEG Signals by Synchronous Activity The Electroencephalogram

6. Sleep –Universal among higher vertebrates –Sleep deprivation, devastating –One-third of lives in sleep state –Defined: “Sleep is a readily reversible state of reduced responsiveness to, and interaction with, the environment.” Sleep

7. Seizures and Epilepsy –Epilepsy: Repeated seizures –Causes: Tumor, trauma, infection, vascular disease, many cases unknown –Generalized: Entire cerebral cortex, complete behavior disruption, consciousness loss –Partial: Circumscribed cortex area, abnormal sensation or aura –Absence: Less than 30 sec of generalized, 3 Hz EEG waves The Electroencephalogram

8. Generalized Epileptic Seizure The Electroencephalogram

9. Three Functional Brain States Sleep

10. Why Do We Sleep? –Recovery time for brain? –Restoration? Sleep to rest and recover, and prepare to be awake again –Adaptation? Sleep to keep out of trouble, hide from predators Sleep

11. Functions of Dreaming and REM Sleep –Body requires REM sleep –Sigmund Freud: Dream functions- Wish-fulfillment, conquer anxieties –Allan Hobson and Robert McCarley: Activation-synthesis hypothesis –Avi Karni: Certain memories require strengthening period  REM sleep Sleep

12. Circadian rhythms circa = approximately; dies = a day Daily cycles of light and dark –Schedules of circadian rhythms vary among species –Physiological and biochemical processes in body: Rise and fall with daily rhythms –Daylight and darkness cycles removed, circadian rhythms continue –Brain clocks Circadian Rhythms

13. Circadian rhythms and physiological functions Circadian Rhythms

14. Circadian rhythms of sleep and wakefulness Circadian Rhythms

15. Language (Chapter 20) Language –System by which sounds, symbols, and gestures used for communication –Process Language comes into brain through visual and auditory systems Motor system: Produces speech, writing Processing between sensory and motor systems; Essence of language

16. Wada Procedure –Used to determine hemisphere dominant for speech The Discovery of Specialized Language Areas in the Brain

17. Select Mental Illnesses (Chapter 22) Neurology –Branch of medicine concerned with the diagnosis and treatment of nervous system disorders Neurological disorders –Help illustrate the role of physiological processes in normal brain function

18. Introduction Psychiatry –Branch of medicine concerned with the diagnosis and treatment of disorders that affect the mind or psyche Psychiatric disorders –Examples: Anxiety disorders, affective disorders, schizophrenia

19. Mental Illness and the Brain Human behavior –Product of brain activity Brain –Product of two mutually interacting factors DNA –Determines individualism

20. Mental Illness and the Brain Mental illness –Diagnosable disorder of thought, mood, or behavior that causes distress or impaired functioning –Earlier belief Disorders of the body Disorders of the mind

21. Mental Illness and the Brain Psychosocial Approaches to Mental Illness –Freud’s theory: Mental illness- Unconscious and conscious elements of psyche come into conflict –Skinner: Many behaviors are learned responses to the environment –Maladaptive behavior

22. Anxiety Disorders Fear –An adaptive response to threatening situations –Innate and species-specific –Learned Anxiety disorders –Caused by inappropriate expression of fear

23. Anxiety Disorders Common Anxiety Disorders –Panic disorder –Agoraphobia –Obsessive-compulsive disorder –Generalized anxiety disorder –Specific phobias –Social phobia –Post-traumatic stress disorder

24. Anxiety Disorders Treatments for Affective Disorders (cont’d) –Antidepressants

25. Anxiety Disorders Treatments for Affective Disorders –Lithium

26. The Search for the Engram (Chapter 24) Lashley’s Studies of Maze Learning in Rats Engram: memory trace

27. The Search for the Engram Hebb and the Cell Assembly –External events are represented by cortical cells –Cells reciprocally interconnected  reverberation –Active neurons—cell assembly Consolidation by “growth process” “Fire together, wire together” –Hebb and the engram Widely distributed among linked cells in the assembly Could involve neurons involved in sensation and perception

28. The Search for the Engram Hebb’s Cell Assembly and Memory Storage

29. The Temporal Lobes and Declarative Memory Radial arm maze (a) –(b) Normal rats go down each arm for food only once but not with hippocampal lesions –(c) Normal and lesioned rats learn which arms are baited and avoid the rest

30. The Temporal Lobes and Declarative Memory Spatial Memory and Hippocampal Place Cells –Morris water maze: requires NMDA receptors in hippocampus –Place cells fire when animal is in a specific place –Dynamic

31. Procedural Learning (Chapter 25) Associative Learning –Classical Conditioning: Pair an unconditional stimulus (UC) with a conditional stimulus (CS) to get a conditioned response (CR)