1. Utility

2. UTILITY FUNCTIONS
A preference relation that is complete, reflexive, transitive and continuous can be represented by a continuous utility function (as an alternative, or as a complement, to the indifference “map” of the previous lecture).
Continuity means that small changes to a consumption bundle cause only small changes to the preference (utility) level.

3. UTILITY FUNCTIONS f ~ p p
A utility function U(x) represents a preference relation if and only if: x0 x U(x0) > U(x1) x0 x U(x0) < U(x1) x0 ~ x U(x0) = U(x1) ~ f p p

4. UTILITY FUNCTIONS
Utility is an ordinal (i.e. ordering or ranking) concept.
For example, if U(x) = 6 and U(y) = 2 then bundle x is strictly preferred to bundle y. However, x is not necessarily “three times better” than y.

5. UTILITY FUNCTIONS and INDIFFERENCE CURVES
Consider the bundles (4,1), (2,3) and (2,2).
Suppose (2,3) > (4,1) ~ (2,2).
Assign to these bundles any numbers that preserve the preference ordering; e.g. U(2,3) = 6 > U(4,1) = U(2,2) = 4.
Call these numbers utility levels.

6. UTILITY FUNCTIONS and INDIFFERENCE CURVES
An indifference curve contains equally preferred bundles.
Equal preference  same utility level.
Therefore, all bundles on an indifference curve have the same utility level.

7. UTILITY FUNCTIONS and INDIFFERENCE CURVES
So the bundles (4,1) and (2,2) are on the indifference curve with utility level U º 4
But the bundle (2,3) is on the indifference curve with utility level U º 6

8. UTILITY FUNCTIONS and INDIFFERENCE CURVESx2
(2,3) > (2,2) = (4,1) x2
U º 6
U º 4 x1
xx11

9. UTILITY FUNCTIONS and INDIFFERENCE CURVES
Comparing more bundles will create a larger collection of all indifference curves and a better description of the consumer’s preferences.

10. UTILITY FUNCTIONS and INDIFFERENCE CURVES
x2x2
U º 6
U º 4
U º 2
xx1 1

11. UTILITY FUNCTIONS and INDIFFERENCE CURVES
Comparing all possible consumption bundles gives the complete collection of the consumer’s indifference curves, each with its assigned utility level.
This complete collection of indifference curves completely represents the consumer’s preferences.

12. UTILITY FUNCTIONS and INDIFFERENCE CURVES
The collection of all indifference curves for a given preference relation is an indifference map.
An indifference map is equivalent to a utility function; each is the other.

13. UTILITY FUNCTIONS If
(i) U is a utility function that represents a preference relation; and (ii) f is a strictly increasing function,
then
V = f(U) is also a utility function representing the original preference function.
Example? V = 2.U

14. GOODS, BADS and NEUTRALS
A good is a commodity unit which increases utility (gives a more preferred bundle).
A bad is a commodity unit which decreases utility (gives a less preferred bundle).
A neutral is a commodity unit which does not change utility (gives an equally preferred bundle).

15. GOODS, BADS and NEUTRALS
Utility
Utility function
Units of water are goods
Units of water are bads
Water x’
Around x’ units, a little extra water is a neutral.

16. UTILITY FUNCTIONS Cobb-Douglas Utility Function
Perfect Substitutes Utility Function
Note: MRS = (-)a/b
Perfect Substitutes: Example
X1 = pints; X2 = half-pints; and U(X1, X2) = 2X1 + 1X2.
U(4,0) = U(0,8) = 8.
MRS = -(2/1), i.e. individual willing to give up two units of X2 (half-pints) in order to receive one more unit of X1 (pint).
Perfect Complements Utility Function
Note: MRS = ?

17. UTILITY
Preferences can be represented by a utility function if the functional form has certain “nice” properties
Example: Consider U(x1,x2)= x1.x2
u/x1> and u/x2>0
Along a particular indifference curve
x1.x2 = constant  x2=c/x1
As x1   x2
i.e. downward sloping indifference curve

18. UTILITY Example U(x1,x2)= x1.x2 =16 X1 X2 MRS 1 16 2 8 (-) 8
1 16
(-) 8
(-) 2.7
(-) 1.3
(-) 0.8
3. As X1  MRS  (in absolute terms), i.e convex preferences

19. COBB DOUGLAS UTILITY FUNCTION
Any utility function of the form U(x1,x2) = x1a x2b with a > 0 and b > 0 is called a Cobb-Douglas utility function.
Examples
U(x1,x2) = x11/2 x21/2 (a = b = 1/2) V(x1,x2) = x1 x (a = 1, b = 3)

20. COBB DOUBLAS INDIFFERENCE CURVESx2
All curves are “hyperbolic”, asymptoting to, but never touching any axis. x1

21. PERFECT SUBSITITUTES
Instead of U(x1,x2) = x1x2 consider V(x1,x2) = x1 + x2.

22. PERFECT SUBSITITUTES x2 x1 + x2 = 5 x1 + x2 = 9 x1 + x2 = 13
V(x1,x2) = x1 + x2 5 9 13 x1
All are linear and parallel.

23. PERFECT COMPLEMENTS
Instead of U(x1,x2) = x1x2 or V(x1,x2) = x1 + x2, consider W(x1,x2) = min{x1,x2}.

24. PERFECT COMPLEMENTS x2 45o W(x1,x2) = min{x1,x2} 8 min{x1,x2} = 8 53
min{x1,x2} = 3 3 5 8 x1
All are right-angled with vertices/corners
on a ray from the origin.

25. MARGINAL UTILITY Marginal means “incremental”.
The marginal utility of product i is the rate-of-change of total utility as the quantity of product i consumed changes by one unit; i.e.

26.  x2/x1 {= MRS} = (-)MU1/MU2
MARGINAL UTILITY
U=(x1,x2)
MU1=U/x1  U=MU1.x1
MU2=U/x2  U=MU2.x2
Along a particular indifference curve
U = 0 = MU1(x1) + MU2(x2)
 x2/x1 {= MRS} = (-)MU1/MU2

27. MARGINAL UTILITY
E.g. if U(x1,x2) = x11/2 x22 then

28. MARGINAL UTILITY
E.g. if U(x1,x2) = x11/2 x22 then

29. MARGINAL UTILITY
E.g. if U(x1,x2) = x11/2 x22 then

30. MARGINAL UTILITY
E.g. if U(x1,x2) = x11/2 x22 then

31. MARGINAL UTILITY
So, if U(x1,x2) = x11/2 x22 then

32. MARGINAL UTLITIES AND MARGINAL RATE OF SUBISITUTION
The general equation for an indifference curve is U(x1,x2) º k, a constant
Totally differentiating this identity gives

33. MARGINAL UTLITIES AND MARGINAL RATE OF SUBISITUTION
rearranging

34. MARGINAL UTLITIES AND MARGINAL RATE OF SUBISITUTION
rearranging
This is the MRS.

35. MU’s and MRS: An example
Suppose U(x1,x2) = x1x2. Then so

36. MU’s and MRS: An example
U(x1,x2) = x1x2; x2 8
MRS(1,8) = - 8/1 = MRS(6,6) = - 6/6 = -1. 6
U = 36
U = 8 x1 1 6

37. MONOTONIC TRANSFORMATIONS AND MRS
Applying a monotonic transformation to a utility function representing a preference relation simply creates another utility function representing the same preference relation.
What happens to marginal rates-of-substitution when a monotonic transformation is applied? (Hopefully, nothing)

38. MONOTONIC TRANSFORMATIONS AND MRS
For U(x1,x2) = x1x2 the MRS = (-) x2/x1
Create V = U2; i.e. V(x1,x2) = x12x22 What is the MRS for V?
which is the same as the MRS for U.

39. MONOTONIC TRANSFORMATIONS AND MRS
More generally, if V = f(U) where f is a strictly increasing function, then
So MRS is unchanged by a positive monotonic transformation.