1. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Chapter 7 - Rationalism A History of Psychology: Ideas and Context (4 th edition) D. Brett King, Wayne Viney, and William Douglas Woody This multimedia product and its contents are protected under copyright law. The following are prohibited by law: any public performance or display, including transmission of any image over a network; preparation of any derivative work, including the extraction, in whole or in part, of any images; any rental, lease, or lending of the program

2. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Rationalism René Descartes and others answered the challenge of Montaigne’s skepticism through rationalism. “Rationalism” is derived from the Latin “ratio” meaning to reason. Rationalism may be differentiated from Empiricism in three primary ways. –Rationalism emphasizes a priori knowledge. –Rationalists most often postulate an active mind that acts upon incoming sensory information. –Rationalists emphasize deductive arguments, using logic to demonstrate that the premises of an argument provide definitive grounds for the conclusion.

3. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 René Descartes René Descartes applied his mathematical approach to philosophy in his development of a rational system. Descartes imported his mathematical method as he pushed the limits of his ability to doubt. The four parts of his method are as follows. –Never accept anything as true unless it is clear, distinct, and immune from doubt. –Divide all difficulties into as many parts as possible. –Start with the easiest and simplest elements and then proceed to the complex. –Keep complete notes and comprehensive reviews so nothing is omitted. Descartes started with doubt. –He could not, however, doubt that he was doubting. –He maintained that because he was doubting he was thinking, and –because he was thinking he was existing –Therefore, he concluded, “I think, therefore I am.” –After establishing his own existence, he accepted clear and distinct sense experience, and then he can proceed to rely on his experience in his research. Descartes postulated a non-extended mind that is qualitatively different from the physical body.

4. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Baruch Spinoza Baruch Spinoza faced extreme social, political, religious, and personal pressure to change his views but did not. –Spinoza argued for a monistic pantheism. There is only one substance, God. –Descartes had presented qualitative distinctions between mind and body, sacred and secular, and humans and animals. –Spinoza challenged Descartes’s dualisms, particularly the means by which qualitatively different substances such as mind and body

5. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Baruch Spinoza Spinoza advocated double-aspect monism. –Even if humans use different languages to discuss the mental and physical worlds, the mental and physical are only two aspects of the same reality, God. –These two aspects of humans move in response to natural laws. There is no room for free will. –Spinoza’s thoroughgoing monism prohibits powers separate from God. Therefore, he denied the existence of demons. Spinoza may have helped challenge the intellectual foundation of the inquisition.

6. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz was a brilliant mathematician and diplomat, and he also struggled with Descartes’s dualism and the requirement of mind-body interaction. Leibniz proposed a monadology. –This was a system in which indivisible units of existence (monads) moved in parallel in a preestablished harmony without interacting. –Though modads do not interact with one each other, they may combine in experience.

7. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz For Leibniz, the mind is an active force in manipulating sensory input. Leibniz argued for uniformitarianism. –He claimed that change is gradual and takes place over long periods of time.

8. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Christian von Wolff Christian von Wolff extended the work of Leibniz. –Wolff was one of the first to use “psychology” in a publication.

9. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Immanuel Kant Immanuel Kant sought a middle ground between empiricism and rationalism. –Kant distinguished between analytic a priori statements that are tautologies and synthetic a priori statements that contain new information about the world. –Kant believed that knowledge begins with sensory experience. –But, the mind uses innate categories of understanding to make our experience intelligible. –Kant provides a basic social psychology. –He argued that humans are caught in the tension between heteronomy (government from the outside) and autonomy (self-government). Self-government plays a role in our ability to act in a moral manner.

10. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Johann Friedrich Herbart Johann Friedrich Herbart took a psychological approach to educational problems. He attempted to quantify phenomena in psychology. –Herbart studied apperception, mental operations more complex than sense perception,. –He claimed that the goal of education was to build the apperceptive mass. –Education, for Herbart, must also be moral education.

11. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Thomas Reid Thomas Reid advocated common sense philosophy. He rejected any philosophical positions that were counter-intuitive or did violence to human experience of the world. He was frustrated with the counter-intuitive claims of Berkeley and Hume. –Reid argued for first principles, propositions that could not be doubted without violating common sense. For example, one first principle requires the belief in the external world.

12. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 More Legacies The rationalists and the empiricists disagreed in several ways, but They both acknowledged the importance of enfranchising curiosity and letting inquiry run its course. Despite Biblical and authoritative injunctions against curiosity, Bacon, Descartes, and others found theological and natural supports for allowing human curiosity to run unchecked.