1. CONSTRUCTION

2. Foundation
A foundation supports the weight of a structure, sometimes called substructures
Three parts of foundation : earth, footing and vertical supports
Spread footing is used for hard grounds
Piles are used is the ground is soft, or the site is marshy or under water

3. Superstructure
It is the part of a structure that is above the ground (exceptions: tunnel or pipeline)
Mass Superstructures: large masses of materials -- Dams and monuments
Bearing Wall Superstructures: enclose a space with walls -- castle
Framed Superstructures: a framework to support the building – most buildings today.
Lumber, steel, concrete are used to build a framed superstructure

5. Types of Structures Bridges Beam bridge Arch bridge Cantilever bridge
One beam to cross a distance
Arch bridge
Use of an arch
Aqueduct is a raised channel to carry water from one place to another
Cantilever bridge
Two diving boards facing each other
The sections are firmly attached at their ends
Another section may be added to provide a link if the sections do not meet
Huge force to support each end --- Double cantilever bridge
Suspension bridge
They bridge wide spans
Use of steel cables to hang the deck(roadbed) from towers

7. Types of Structures Buildings Four kinds of building construction
Residential
Commercial
Institutional
Industrial
Aesthetic design and beauty are important in the first three kinds
Land costs for the industrial buildings are fairly low
Lumber is building houses –- dimensional lumber --- 8’ by 2” by 4”
Insulations(fiberglass, plastic foam), electrical wiring, and plumbing pipes are placed in the framework
Plaster boards (sheetrock) are sheets of plaster covered with heavy paper --- inside walls
Composites or plywood panels are used for outside walls. They may be covered with wood or aluminum siding

8. Types of Structures Tunnels
Penalized construction --- parts of houses are built in a factory
Apartment houses, institutional and commercial buildings are framed with steel or reinforced concrete
Beams support the load of the floors and walls
Columns transfer the weight from the beams to the foundation
Reinforced concrete beams and columns are cast in place at the site
Tunnels
Their idea is probably taken from an animal burrow
Tunnels under water and through mountains have shortened travel routes since ancient times
Tunneling shield holds the earth up while tunnel is being dug
Tunnels dug into rock are drilled and blasted by explosives
Shot Crete prevents water from seeping through the rock
Tunnels in soft ground can be machined using large cutters – 15’

9. Types of Structures Fort McHenry Tunnels
Tube making begins with steel panels
The panels are welded together to form a shell plate
Shell plate is wrapped around a specially designed reel to make a module
Sixteen modules (eight for each tube) are joined. They form one section of the double-barreled tube. Each tube holds two lanes of roadway.
Dam plates seal each end of the tube

10. Types of Structures Roads
Modern road building started in late 1700s with the ideas of a Scotsman named John Loudon McAdam --- hard soil + stone + tar
McAdam roads were higher in the center than at the edges
A material used as a surface of roads these days is named after him --- macadam
Since early 1900s, roads have been built of concrete or macadam
Road construction
Choose the route
Smoothen the ground by bulldozers
Press down the soil by heavy rollers
Cover the soil with stone
Make a pavement of about 1’ thickness of concrete, macadam or asphalt
Center barriers, good lighting and traffic control devices

11. Types of Structures Other Structures Renovation
Airports, canals, dams and pipelines etc
Large construction companies often have different division for different structures
Renovation
It is the process of rebuilding an existing building
Carried out for a change in the style of the building or to fulfill the repairing needs of the building
Renovation is less costly than demolishing a structure and building it all over again