2. Founder of computer science, mathematician, philosopher, codebreaker, strange visionary and a gay man before his time. http://www.turing.org.uk/turing/ 

3. This triple correspondence between logical instructions, the action of the mind, and a machine which could in principle be embodied in a practical physical form, was Turing's definitive contribution. Having made this novel definition of what should count as a 'definite method' --- in modern language, an algorithm --- it was not too hard to answer Hilbert's question in the negative: no such decision procedure exists.

4. His work introduced a concept of immense practical significance: the idea of the Universal Turing Machine. The concept of 'the Turing machine' is like that of 'the formula' or 'the equation'; there is an infinity of possible Turing machines, each corresponding to a different 'definite method' or algorithm. But imagine, as Turing did, each particular algorithm written out as a set of instructions in a standard form. Then the work of interpreting the instructions and carrying them out is itself a mechanical process, and so can itself be embodied in a particular Turing machine, namely the Universal Turing machine. A Universal Turing machine can be made do what any other particular Turing machine would do, by supplying it with the standard form describing that Turing machine. One machine, for all possible tasks. It is hard now not to think of a Turing machine as a computer program, and the mechanical task of interpreting and obeying the program as what the computer itself does. Thus, the Universal Turing Machine embodies the essential principle of the computer: a single machine which can be turned to any well-defined task by being supplied with the appropriate program. Additionally, the abstract Universal Turing Machine naturally exploits what was later seen as the 'stored program' concept essential to the modern computer: it embodies the crucial twentieth-century insight that symbols representing instructions are no different in kind from symbols representing numbers.

5. Turing held that computers would in time be programmed to acquire abilities rivalling human intelligence. As part of his argument Turing put forward the idea of an 'imitation game', in which a human being and a computer would be interrogated under conditions where the interrogator would not know which was which, the communication being entirely by textual messages. Turing argued that if the interrogator could not distinguish them by questioning, then it would be unreasonable not to call the computer intelligent. Turing's 'imitation game' is now usually called 'the Turing test' for intelligence. The most fundamental statement of Turing's thought in this paper is that the operations of the brain must be computable. The famous Test is secondary. Furthermore, the main point of his paper was to put forward constructive arguments for how machine intelligence should be achieved.

6. http://www.alicebot.org/alice_page.htm http://www.vircio.org/chatterbot/chatterbot.htm

8. Is the Brain a Digital Computer? John R. Searle 1. On the standard textbook definition, computation is defined syntactically in terms of symbol manipulation. 2. But syntax and symbols are not defined in terms of physics. Though symbol tokens are always physical tokens, "symbol" and "same symbol" are not defined in terms of physical features. Syntax, in short, is not intrinsic to physics. 3. This has the consequence that computation is not discovered in the physics, it is assigned to it. Certain physical phenomena are assigned or used or programmed or interpreted syntactically. Syntax and symbols are observer relative. 4. It follows that you could not discover that the brain or anything else was intrinsically a digital computer, although you could assign a computational interpretation to it as you could to anything else. The point is not that the claim "The brain is a digital computer" is false. Rather it does not get up to the level of falsehood. It does not have a clear sense. You will have misunderstood my account if you think that I am arguing that it is simply false that the brain is a digital computer. The question "Is the brain a digital computer?" is as ill defined as the questions "Is it an abacus?", "Is it a book?", or "Is it a set of symbols?", "Is it a set of mathematical formulae?"

9. 5. Some physical systems facilitate the computational use much better than others. That is why we build, program, and use them. In such cases we are the homunculus in the system interpreting the physics in both syntactical and semantic terms. 6. But the causal explanations we then give do not cite causal properties different from the physics of the implementation and the intentionality of the homunculus. 7. The standard, though tacit, way out of this is to commit the homunculus fallacy. The humunculus fallacy is endemic to computational models of cognition and cannot be removed by the standard recursive decomposition arguments. They are addressed to a different question. 8. We cannot avoid the foregoing results by supposing that the brain is doing "information processing". The brain, as far as its intrinsic operations are concerned, does no information processing. It is a specific biological organ and its specific neurobiological processes cause specific forms of intentionality. In the brain, intrinsically, there are neurobiological processes and sometimes they cause consciousness. But that is the end of the story.

10. John Searle’s 1990 enhancement to CR Arguments in his paper “Is the brain’s mind a computer program?” Axiom 1: Computer programs are formal (syntactic) Axiom 2: Human Minds have mental contents (semantics) Axiom 3: Syntax by itself is neither constitutive of nor sufficient for semantics; in fact, they are only descriptions (models) assigned to the physical behavior of things Conclusion 1: Programs are neither constitutive of nor sufficient for minds.

11. The Church-Turing thesis: A method, or procedure, M, for achieving some desired result is called ‘effective’ or ‘mechanical’ just in case M is set out in terms of a finite number of exact instructions (each instruction being expressed by means of a finite number of symbols); M will, if carried out without error, always produce the desired result in a finite number of steps; M can (in practice or in principle) be carried out by a human being unaided by any machinery save paper and pencil; M demands no insight or ingenuity on the part of the human being carrying it out.

12. Phil AgrePhil Agre Fredric Bartlett Jay David BolterFredric BartlettJay David Bolter Jerome BrunerJerome Bruner Vannevar Bush John CarrollVannevar BushJohn Carroll Noam ChomskyNoam Chomsky William Clancey Michael ColeWilliam ClanceyMichael Cole Edward deBonoEdward deBono Daniel Dennett Hubert DreyfusDaniel DennettHubert Dreyfus Stevan HarnadStevan Harnad Douglas Hofstadter John JosephsonDouglas Hofstadter John Josephson George LakoffGeorge Lakoff Brenda Laurel John McCarthyBrenda LaurelJohn McCarthy Marvin MinskyMarvin Minsky Allen Newell Donald NormanAllen NewellDonald Norman Seymore PapertSeymore Papert Jean Piaget John SearleJean PiagetJohn Searle Herbert SimonHerbert Simon Paul Thagard Sherry TurklePaul ThagardSherry Turkle Alan TuringAlan Turing Terry Winograd Lev VygotskyTerry WinogradLev Vygotsky

13. Cognitive Science Definition 1 "the study of intelligence and intelligent systems, with particular reference to intelligent behaviour as computation" (Simon & Kaplan, 1989) Simon, H. A. & C. A. Kaplan, "Foundations of cognitive science", in Posner, M.I. (ed.) 1989, Foundations of Cognitive Science, MIT Press, Cambridge MA.

14. Definition 2 Cognitive science refers to the interdisciplinary study of the acquisition and use of knowledge. It includes as contributing disciplines: artificial intelligence, psychology, linguistics, philosophy, anthropology, neuroscience, and education. The cognitive science movement is far reaching and diverse, containing within it several viewpoints. Cognitive science grew out of three developments: the invention of computers and the attempts to design programs that could do the kinds of tasks that humans do; the development of information processing psychology where the goal was to specify the internal processing involved in perception, language, memory, and thought; and the development of the theory of generative grammar and related offshoots in linguistics. Cognitive science was a synthesis concerned with the kinds of knowledge that underlie human cognition, the details of human cognitive processing, and the computational modeling of those processes. There are five major topic areas in cognitive science: knowledge representation, language, learning, thinking, and perception. Eysenck, M.W. ed. (1990). The Blackwell Dictionary of Cognitive Psychology. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Basil Blackwell Ltd.

15. Definition 3 Generally stated, this is the study of intelligence and intelligence systems. It is a relatively new science that combines knowledge gained from a number of disciplines. These include: computer science,neuroscience, cognitive psychology, philosophy, and linguistics. As a result of the collaborative effort between these disciplines, there have been, and will continue to be, huge advancements in our understanding of human cognition.