1. Orlando Zacarias, 16/05/01 CLAIMS AND EVIDENCE (Chaps. 7 & 8) Booth,Colomb and Williams “The Craft of Research ”

2. Orlando Zacarias, 16/05/01 Making Good Arguments w No big differences: every day life arguments & research arguments w Normal conversation: confident of your knowledgeconfident of your knowledge person is there:person is there: questioning,questioning, encouraging think hard on what and why you believeencouraging think hard on what and why you believe

3. Orlando Zacarias, 16/05/01 w Research argument: answer Readers questionsanswer Readers questions ask questions on their behalfask questions on their behalf w … they may include …. Reader’s QuestionsYour answers What is your point?I claim that …. What Evidence do you have?I offer as evidence… What do you think your evidence supports your claim? I offer this general principle... …………………………………………………………… Then just how strong is your claim?I limit it …….

4. Orlando Zacarias, 16/05/01 w Your answers are your argument, offering: claimclaim evidence or ground supporting itevidence or ground supporting it warrant: general principle explaining why your evidence is relevant to your claimwarrant: general principle explaining why your evidence is relevant to your claim qualification: making your claim and evidence more precisequalification: making your claim and evidence more precise w Always state explicitly: claim and supporting evidence w Claim: stating what you want your readers to believe

5. Orlando Zacarias, 16/05/01 w Evidence/grounds: reasons why they should believe w If either of these not present, you seem to offer pointless data or ungrounded opinion w Expand arguments with two more elements: warrants and qualifications.Overcome correct resistance from readers to change their minds w Warrant: general principle of an argument, an assumption/premise bridging the claim and supporting evidence, thus logically connecting them into a related pair

6. Orlando Zacarias, 16/05/01 w Warrant answers questions about the relevance of your claims w Qualifications: limit the certainty of your conditions or stipulate conditions in which your claim holds. Addresses readers’ potential objections (making you a cautions and thoughtful writer) w Making a claim that is true only under certain conditions, you give the opportunity to your readers to qualify your arguments appropriately

7. Orlando Zacarias, 16/05/01 w When qualifying your argument, you acknowledge the obstacles that interrupt the movement between your evidence and claims. warrant Claim Evidence Qualifications Whenever you make a claim that is true under certain conditions or assert a connection between evidence and claim not 100% certain but only probably true, you owe it to yourself and your readers to qualify your argument appropriately!!

8. Orlando Zacarias, 16/05/01 w Blood testing example:Volunteer reads the device that test the blood sugar and says, You should be checked by your doctor claim because your reading is 200 evidence. w …. why 200 means we should see a doctor??.. w We are asking for a warrant, a principle justifying connecting the evidence 200 on this device, to a particular claim that we should see a doctor. “ Whenever someone has a reading of more than 120, it’s a sign that may have diabetes”. w Before we can evaluate a claim and its evidence, have to know how their scope is qualified: Your reading is 200 evidence, so you should be checked claim, because that much glucose in the blood is a w good qualification sign you may qualification have diabetes warrant unless, of course, you just ate something sugary qualification. w The more complex and interesting your argument, the more qualifications you are likely to need, because complex and interesting claims are never 100% true under all circumstances.

9. Orlando Zacarias, 16/05/01 w The way you manage claims, evidences, warrants and qualifications is important as readers judge not just your arguments but the quality of your mind (ideas) w When making claims, give good reasons, and add qualifications.This way you acknowledge your readers’ desire to work with you in developing and testing new ideas.

10. Orlando Zacarias, 16/05/01 How to Make Strong Claims w Main claim: lies at heart of your report w The part reflecting your personal contribution to your research w Readers expect it to be: substantivesubstantive contestablecontestable explicitexplicit

11. Orlando Zacarias, 16/05/01 Substantive Claim... w Readers demand you help them understand something important (take no notice/little interest in claims, about what you have done or what your paper will do) w Meaning: a claim is non-substantive if it needs no argument to support it …..

12. Orlando Zacarias, 16/05/01 Contestable Claim… w Thus, the World War II changed the course of history by allowing the Soviet Union to dominate Eastern Europe for almost half a century. w All believe that … no new information … w If what you tell readers does not change their minds in ways they care, … wasting their time w Only claims that change what they already believe will be contestable, hence significant

13. Orlando Zacarias, 16/05/01 Explicit Claim... w Claim posed with sufficient detail and specific for readers to recognize central concepts that will be developed in the paper 1. Thus, the emancipation of Russian peasants was not a significant event. 2. Thus, the emancipation of Russian peasants was not a significant, because while their lives changed somewhat, their situation declined. 3. Thus, the emancipation of Russian peasants was not symbolic, because while they gained control over their daily affairs, their economic condition deteriorated so sharply that their new social status did not affect the material quality of their existence.

14. Orlando Zacarias, 16/05/01 w First claim has little substance w The second is less vague, but has few specific concepts for readers to look for w The third one is explicit, announces several concepts that the author should develop in its support: symbolic, gain control, economic condition, deteriorate, new social status, material quality of existence w Early statement of main claim should: be done in a specific languagebe done in a specific language produce feeling of coherence after reappearingproduce feeling of coherence after reappearing avoid missing of important conceptsavoid missing of important concepts

15. Orlando Zacarias, 16/05/01 How to Offer Reliable Evidences w Most papers are devoted to supporting evidence If the readers reject your supporting evidence because they think it is weak, it has then fail one or more of six tests (judged not to be): accurate precise sufficient representative authoritative perspicuous

16. Orlando Zacarias, 16/05/01 free of errorsaccuracy: free of errors tangible margin of error (varies from field to field)precision: tangible margin of error (varies from field to field) number of trials/experiments performed (varies from field to field)sufficiency: number of trials/experiments performed (varies from field to field) variety of population from which they are drawn and about which you make your claim (field dependent)representativeness: variety of population from which they are drawn and about which you make your claim (field dependent) authority source citations (what counts??, field depend)authority: authority source citations (what counts??, field depend) a way of avoiding quantitative data or direct quotations (readers should get a perception of evidence in your evidence…)perspicuity: a way of avoiding quantitative data or direct quotations (readers should get a perception of evidence in your evidence…)

17. Orlando Zacarias, 16/05/01 w Readers may also reject evidence because it is irrelevant or inappropriate w All these criteria are not unique to research arguments…

18. Orlando Zacarias, 16/05/01 …. Way of Conclusion... w Claim is much stronger than an Argument. This way, is not sufficient to make good arguments but one should rather attempt to claim the truth or falsity of his/her argument….. w Claim: An Authoritative or Challenging request w Argument: Statement made or Fact presented in supporting or in opposition to a proposal or opinion w An argument can be/is presented as an evidence to a claim

19. Orlando Zacarias, 16/05/01