1. Scientific Method Steps Observation Hypothesis Experiment
Analysis and Conclusion
If wrong form new hypothesis

2. Scientific Method Controlled experiment
Tests effect of a single variable while keeping all other variables the same
Any observed differences should be caused only by the single changed variable

3. Scientific Method Observations (qualitative and quantitative)
Quantitative– involve numbers, counting, measuring objects.
Qualitative– involve characteristics that cannot be easily measured or counted such as color or texture

4. Scientific Method
Hypothesis– a possible explanation, a preliminary conclusion, or even an “educated” guess about some event in nature
Theory– As evidence builds up, a particular hypothesis may become so well supported that scientists consider it a theory.
Atomic theory

5. Chemistry Organic Compounds
Carbohydrate- main source of energy for animals
Monomer = monosaccharide (single suger)
Polymer = Starch, Cellulose
Protein- functional or structural
Monomer = Amino Acid
Polymer = Protein
Nucleic Acid-controls inheritance
Monomer = Nucleotide
Polymer = DNA, RNA

6. Chemistry Enzymes Biological Catalyst Not used up during reaction
Speeds up chemical reactions
Lowers Activation energy (energy needed to get reaction started
Not used up during reaction
A specialized protein
functional protein

7. Chemistry pH Measured on a scale of 1-14 Below 7 acid Above 7 base
pH of 7 = neutral
Speeds up chemical reactions
Lowers Activation energy (energy needed to get reaction started

8. Chemistry
Reactants and Products
Reactants
Products

9. Chemistry Solutions Solute- “stuff” that is dissolved
Solvent –the liquid that does the dissolvin

10. Chemistry
Chemical bonds– links that hold atoms together. Two main types
Covalent bonds– formed by sharing electrons between two atoms
Bond found in organic compounds

11. Chemistry
Ionic bonds- formed by transfer of 1 more electrons from 1 atom to another
Ion– (+) or (-) charged atom that results from gaining or losing electron

12. Cells
Organelles

13. Nucleus- control center of cell. Contains DNA (genetic material)
Nucleus- control center of cell. Contains DNA (genetic material). Found in eukaryotic cells.

14. Ribosome- organelle where proteins are made
Ribosome- organelle where proteins are made. Free-floating and some on Endoplasmic reticulum

15. Golgi apparatus- Cells “post office”. Packages proteins

16. Endoplasmic reticulum- Cells transport system
Endoplasmic reticulum- Cells transport system. Help make proteins (rough E.R.)

17. Lysosome- “clean-up” crew of cell
Lysosome- “clean-up” crew of cell. Contains enzymes to break down old cell parts, digest food, etc.

18. Cell membrane- flexible, and semi-permeable membrane surrounding cell.

19. Cells Cell membrane- composed of lipid bi-layer (2 layers of lipids)
Lipid layer also called phospholipids

20. Cells
Semi-permeable- allows some things to pass through but not others
Diffusion- movement from areas of high concentration to areas of low concentrations
Osmosis- diffusion of water

21. Cells Active transport- takes energy (endocytosis and exocytosis)
Passive transport- no energy required (diffusion and osmosis)

22. Cells
Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes- Scientists divide cells Into two groups depending on whether they have a nucleus or not.
1. Prokaryotes-no nucleus
Smaller and simpler than cells of eukaryotes
Do have cytoplasm and cell membrane
Example: Bacteria

23. Cells
Eukaryotes- do contain nucleus and membrane bound organelles (includes plants, animals, fungi)
Contain cytoplasm and cell membrane
Contains organelles

24. Cells
Homeostasis- maintain constant internal conditions (example: blood sugar levels, blood pressure, shivering/sweating)

25. Photosynthesis Equation Affected by:
Energy from sunlight converts carbon dioxide and water into high energy sugar (glucose)
Takes place in chloroplast (organelle)
Affected by:
1. Light intensity
2. Amount of water
3. Temperature
Autotroph- Can make their own food (plants)
light
6CO H2O C6H12O O2

26. Cellular Respiration
Heterotroph- can not make their own food. Need to eat something else to obtain energy (fungi, animals, most bacteria
Equation
Fermentation- still make energy when no oxygen present. Two types: alcoholic and lactic acid fermentation
Mitochondria- where respiration takes place
6O2 + C6H12O CO H2O + Energy

27. Glycolysis → krebs cycle → electron transport
Cellular Respiration
Series of events:
Glycolysis → krebs cycle → electron transport
ENERGY

28. Cellular Respiration Photosynthesis
Compared to
Photosynthesis

29. Cell Division
Cell cycle- series of event cell goes through as it grows and eventually divides.
Interphase- When cell grows and develops, getting ready to divide again
Mitosis- Division of cell nucleus (forms diploid (2N) cells)
Cytokinesis- cell splits in two
PMAT

30. Cell Division Results in 4 genetically different cells
Meiosis- cell division forming sex cells (gametes)
Results in 4 genetically different cells
Gametes are N (haploid-half the number of chromosomes)

31. Cell Division
Cell growth (cell gets bigger, volume increases faster than surface area) so has to divide

32. DNA, RNA, and Protein Synthesis
Replication- DNA making DNA
Transcription- DNA making RNA
Translation- RNA making Proteins

33. DNA, RNA, and Protein Synthesis
Sugar- deoxyribose
Sugar-ribose
Two stranded
Single strand
ATCG
AUCG
DNA-double helix
3 kinds of RNA

34. DNA, RNA, and Protein Synthesis
Complementary bases
DNA: C-G A-T
RNA: C-G A-U

35. DNA, RNA, and Protein Synthesis
Codon- three letter “word” on mRNA specifying a particular amino acid
anticodon
codon

36. Genetics homozygous same letters (TT or tt)
heterozygous different letters (Tt)
Genotype- the alleles (letters) i.e. Tt, TT, tt
Phenotype- physical characteristics (Tall, short)

37. Genetics Gamete- sex cell (N) haploid. Zygote- fertilized egg
Fertilization- process when sperm and egg join

38. Genetics
Dominant / Recessive cross- one allele is dominant over another. I.e. T-tall (dominant) over t-short (recessive)
TT X tt
gametes T T
All tall offspring Tt t t

39. Genetics
Incomplete dominance- one allele is not completely dominant over another (RR-red crossed with WW-white yields all RW-pink flowers)
RR X WW R R RW W W

40. Genetics
Co-dominance- both alleles are dominant. RR-red hair, WW-white hair, RW-roan
RR X WW R R RW W W

41. Genetics
Dihybrid cross- Mendel’s two-factor experimental results were very close to 9:3:3:1 ratio predicted by punnett square. Proved that genes that segregate independently do not influence each other’s inheritance.
Principle of Independent Assortment
9:3:3:1

42. Genetics
Multiple Alleles- ABO blood type is an example. A and B or co-dominant.

43. Genetics
Crossing over- when “legs” of chromosomes cross over each other during meiosis and exchange parts of themselves.

44. Genetics
Non-disjunction- when chromosomes fail to separate during meiosis. Resulting in missing or extra chromosomes in gametes

45. Genetics
“Code of Life”- Reading codons and the amino acids they code for
Example:
CGA UGC AAU
Arg – Cys - Asn

46. Genetics
Cloning- a member of a population of genetically identical cells produced from a single cell

47. Genetics
Human Chromosomes- body cells contain 46 chromosomes (23 from sperm, 23 from egg. Join in diploid zygote)
Karyotype- picture of chromosomes cut out from photographs and grouped together in pairs
Sex chromosomes- two of 46- these determine sex of individual XX=female and XY=male
autosomes- remaining 44 chromosomes

48. Genetics
Egg cells contain a single X chromosome. Sperm cells contain either one X chromosome or one Y chromosome. Approximately half of the zygotes are XX (female) and half XY (male)