1. The Self I. What is the self-concept? James, Cooley, Mead Self-schemas
II. Social Context
Immediate Context
Socio-cultural Context (broader context)
Sensitivity to Context (Self-monitoring)
III. Self-enhancement Mechanisms

2. Why study the self in social psychology?
The self is a social creation
Our social experiences from childhood through adulthood influence how we see ourselves.

3. Theories of the Social Self
Theories focusing on the SOCIAL self:
William James (1890): A person has "as many social selves as there are individuals who recognize him and carry an image of him in their minds."

4. The social self
Charles Cooley (1902): Views of self reflect the standpoints of significant others in our lives ("looking glass self")

5. The Social Self
George Herbert Mead (1934): We imagine the perspectives of others and incorporate these into our self views -- and that this occurs continuously as we interact with others on an ongoing, moment to moment basis.

6. The Social Self
Theorists agree that the self develops out of social interaction.
How do you see yourself?

7. Twenty Statements Test

8. Self-schemas
Self-schema (Markus): A set of well-elaborated knowledge about the self that guides the processing of self-relevant information and is based on past social experiences.

9. Self-schemas
Like other social schemas, self-schemas influence attention, interpretation, and memory for self-relevant information.

10. Self-schemas Schema in domain of independence
Schematic: Very self-descriptive and important/central to your view of self
Aschematic: Not high descriptive and not highly important

11. Self-schemas Reaction time task – Me/Not me
--Schematics faster than aschematics to endorse as self-descriptive words in schematic domain (e.g., to independence)
--Schematics resist evidence contradicting their view of themselves in the schematic domain.

12. Spontaneous self-concept
View of self also may change depending on the situation.
Spontaneous self-concept (McGuire): Specific aspects of self that are triggered by the features of the current situation. (Ex: Saying “I’m a brunette” in a room where everyone else is blond.)

13. Self-awareness Theory
Self-focus can vary with the situation.
(People generally spend only a small proportion of the time thinking about themselves. p. 139)
Self-awareness theory (Duval & Wicklund): The theory that self-focused attention leads people to notice self-discrepancies (i.e. to compare their behavior to their internal standards and values), thereby motivating either an escape from self-awareness or a change in behavior.

14. IV: Mirror present or not (mirror creates self-focus)
Trick or treat study: Self focus  Behave in Line with Social Standards
Kids wearing masks, costumes, etc. were greeted at a researcher’s door and left alone to help themselves to a bowl of candy. Asked to take only one piece (sets social standard)
IV: Mirror present or not (mirror creates self-focus)
DV: how much candy taken
Results: No mirror: 34% took more than 1
Mirror: Only 12% took more than 1

15. Implications
Halloween: If you (your family) can’t be at home, but you want to leave out candy, put up
a note asking trick-or-treaters to take “only one candy” (set standard) AND a mirror (create self-focus) behind the candy bowl!

16. Self-focus is associated with:
--behaving in line with socially desirable standards (Halloween study)
--a drop in self-esteem (probably because comparing self with a social standard)

17. The self is social The self is social in at least two ways:
The way we develop our self-conceptions depends in part on our interactions with others.
The situational context (which often includes other people) can affect how we see ourselves at any given point in time.

18. Broad Social Context: Culture and the Self
“The squeaky wheel gets the grease.” (U.S.)
“The nail that stands out gets pounded down.”
(Japan)

19. Culture and the Self Markus and Kitayama
Independent self-view: Define self in terms of own thoughts, feelings, and actions; emphasize uniqueness from others (Individualistic, Western; U.S.)
Interdependent self-view: Define self in terms of one’s relationships to others; emphasize connectedness to others (Collectivistic, East Asian & 3rd World countries)

20. High self-monitors: Especially likely to change their behavior and stated beliefs depending on who they are interacting with and what the situation demands.
Low self-monitors: Respond more consistently from situation to situation on the basis of their existing values.
Neither strategy is inherently good or bad.

21. What is the self? The self-concept is complex and multifaceted.
Universe of self-conceptions: All of the ways in which you might see yourself (actual self, hoped for self, ideal self, etc.)
Working self-concept: Includes core self-conceptions along with less central self-conceptions that may vary depending on the situational context.

22. marathon runner
Intelligent
Warm
Creative
quiet
tennis player
happy
woman
friend
musical
outgoing
student
writer
Brown-eyed
daughter
Dorm resident

23. Self-esteem
Self-esteem: Global positive or negative feelings about the self. (most positive)
How do we hold on to positive view in the face of failure?
Attributions about exam grades when succeed or fail:
Degree to which score reflects:
Your ability
Situation (test was too hard)

24. Mechanisms of self-enhancement
Downward social comparisons: Comparing ourselves to people who are worse off than we are on a particular trait or ability.
Why? Can help us feel better about ourselves; serves a protective function.
Shelley Taylor’s research w/breast cancer patients: Found that many women coped by comparing themselves with others who were doing worse.

25. Examples of Downward Comparisons
Woman w/lump removed: “how awful it must be for women who have had a full mastectomy.”
Older women w/mastectomy: “The people I really feel sorry for are these young gals. To lose a breast when you’re so young must be awful.”
Young mastectomy patient: If I hadn’t been married, this thing would have really gotten to me.”

26. Self-evaluation maintenance theory (SEM)
Cannot always use downward comparison
SEM: Sometimes one’s view of self is threatened by another person’s behavior, and the degree of threat depends on the closeness of the relationship to the other person and relevance of the behavior.
Abraham Tesser’s research: What happens when we compare ourselves with someone close to us? [Video clip]

27. BIRGing
Basking in reflected glory: Increasing self-esteem by associating with others who are successful (BIRGing)

28. BIRGing Cialdini et al. (1976)
Monday morning after football games, college students (from Arizona State, Louisiana State, Notre Dame, Michigan, Ohio State, etc.) more likely to wear school sweatshirts when team won on the previous Sat. & larger the victory, the more shirts worn.

29. BIRGing IV: General knowledge test. ½ success, ½ failure feedback
DV: Describe outcome of recent football game.
Results: Those who failed were more likely to share team’s victory by saying things like “we won” and to distance themselves from defeat by saying “they lost” than those who had succeeded. (This is a way to restore self-esteem.)

30. Berglas & Jones (1978)
Cover: “Drugs and intellectual performance”
Independent variable: Solvable or unsolvable problems
Dependent variable: Choice of Drug
Drug A: Helps intellectual performance
Drug B: Inhibits intellectual performance

31. Helps Inhibits
Unsolvable problem: 30% 70%
Solvable problem: 87% 13%

32. Self-handicapping
Self-handicapping: When a person protects his/her self-image by setting up a situation that makes it difficult to succeed, but creates a handy excuse for failure.

33. Defensive pessimism
Defensive pessimism (Norem & Cantor): A strategy in which a person expects the worst, and works harder because of this expectation.

34. Defensive pessimism
Defensive pessimists performed better when had negative expectations. If blocked negative expectations (by telling them would do well), they did not perform as well as their counterparts who were not given these encouraging instructions.

35. Explanations for self-serving bias:
1. Self-presentation--want to make a good impression on others
2. Motivation--we are motivated to protect and enhance our self-esteem.