1. The Martian Upper Atmosphere By Paul Withers, newly graduated from LPL’s PhD program Dissertation on “Tides in the Martian Atmosphere” Lecture given to Roger Yelle’s PTYS 544 class 2003.04.08

2. Plan Summary of Atmospheric Properties Elemental and Isotopic Composition Energetics and Thermal Structure Dynamics Chemistry Ionosphere Atmospheric Escape Modelling Efforts Venus, Earth, and Mars Compared Recent and Upcoming Observations Mars Aeronomy Orbiter Discussion Sources

3. Summary of Atmospheric Properties Teemu Makinen, Finland

4. The Mars atmosphere consists of a troposphere, an isothermal mesosphere, and a thermosphere where the daytime temperature at the top of the thermosphere may vary depending on the time in the solar cycle. Photochemistry occurs throughout the entire Mars atmosphere, from the top of the thermosphere to the bottom of the troposphere. The photodissociation of the major constituent carbon dioxide produces carbon monoxide and atomic oxygen. The recombination of CO and O takes place in the troposphere through catalytic reactions involving the odd-hydrogen species, H, OH and HO 2. Observational tests that confirm the general validity of the odd-hydrogen model are: (1) the observed abundances of molecular oxygen and carbon monoxide; (2) the observed seasonal variation of ozone over the polar caps of Mars; and (3) the observed density of atomic hydrogen in the thermosphere. Odd nitrogen is produced in the upper atmosphere from the reaction of N(2D) and CO2. Viking mass spectrometers have measured neutral nitric oxide molecules in the Mars atmosphere. Photochemical processes control the behavior of the ionosphere of Mars. The principal ion is O 2 + with smaller amounts of CO 2 + and O + at the ionospheric peak near 135 km. The density of the 0 + ion becomes comparable to the density of the O 2 + ion near the top of the atmosphere. The most intense emissions in the ultraviolet airglow of Mars are the carbon monoxide Cameron bands. Strong ultraviolet emissions from CO 2 + are the result of photoionization of carbon dioxide. The atomic oxygen airglow at 1304 A is used to determine the density of atomic oxygen and the 1216 A Lyman  line is used to calculate the density of atomic hydrogen and, when coupled with the temperature measurement, the escape flux of atomic hydrogen. The most intense airglow is the infrared atmospheric band of O 2 at 1.27  m that results from the photodissociation of ozone. The escape mechanism for atomic hydrogen is thermal, or Jeans, escape while atomic oxygen escape is caused by a nonthermal process, namely, the dissociative recombination of O 2 +. The ratio of deuterium to hydrogen is enriched by a factor of 6. This observation may be used to study the past history of water on Mars. Three-dimensional models of the Mars thermospheric circulation show that planetary rotation has a significant influence on the wind, composition and temperature structure. There is upward flow on the day side, downward flow on the night side. Observations of the thermospheric temperatures near solar minimum from Viking showed a mean dayside temperature of 195 K and near solar maximum from Mariners 6 and 7, a value of 310 K. The challenge for the future is to make observations to study the diurnal, seasonal and solar cycle changes that occur in the Mars atmosphere. (Abstract of reference 1, Barth chapter in Mars book)

5. Table 7.1 Astronomical and atmospheric data for Mars Radius (equatorial) 3394.5 km Mass 6.4185E23 kg Mean density 3.9335 g cm -3 Gravity (surface. equator) 3.711 m s -2 Semimajor axis 1.52366 AU Obliquity (relative to orbital plane) 25.19 degrees Eccentricity of orbit 0.0934 Period of revolution (Earth days) 686.98 Orbital velocity 24.13 km s -1 Period of rotation 24h 37m 22.663s Atmospheric pressure at surface 5.6 mbar Mass of atmospheric column 1.50E-2 kg cm -2 Total atmospheric mass 2.17E16 kg Equilibrium temperature 216 K Surface temperature 220 K Annual variation in solar insolation (a) 1.45 Atmospheric scale height (T = 210 K) 10.8 km Adiabatic lapse rate (dry) 4.5 K km -1 Atmospheric lapse rate (b) 2.5 K km -1 Escape velocity 5.027 km s -1 Taken from Kieffer. H. H. et al. (1992). (a) Based on the ratio of aphelion to perihelion distance squared. (b) Mean observed value. variable. Table 7.1 from reference 2, Yung and DeMore

6. From reference 7, Haberle chapter in Encyclopedia Observations from Viking lander p, T sensors, mass spectrometer; orbiting IR spectrometers and entry accelerometers for T(z)

7. Fig 1.24 from Chamberlain and Hunten Homopause at ~125 km Observations from mass spectrometers during Viking entry and after landing Elemental and Isotopic Composition

8. From reference 2

9. Energetics and Thermal Structure (1) Short (<200nm) wavelength EUV is readily absorbed by most atmospheric species to either ionize or excite the electronic state. Other wavelengths (VIS, IR) in which significant energy is radiated from the Sun are less readily absorbed. So upper atmosphere is dominated by absorption of UV and charged particles from the solar wind. These fluxes are very variable (factors of few to ten) over 11 year solar cycle and short-term solar flares/CMEs. Observations from Viking entry accelerometers, orbiting IR spectrometers, radio occultations

10. From reference 7, Haberle chapter in Encyclopedia Energy also transported to upper atmosphere by upwardly-propagating tides

11. From reference 3…

12. …From reference 3

13. Energetics and Thermal Structure (2) Exospheric T asymptotes to constant value since neither upwelling nor downwelling radiation fluxes change significantly when propagating through such low-density regions. Usually a relatively high value. Dominant mode of heat transfer at highest altitudes (exosphere and thermosphere) is molecular conduction since radiation can’t carry enough of the energy. Have to conduct heat downwards, so T must decrease as z decreases. Eventually densities have increased enough to make radiative cooling viable – mesopause. Composition is important here as CO 2 has transition at 15  m that is at right wavelength for cooling. O/CO 2 collisions make 15  m cooling more efficient.

14. Dynamics Essentially unobserved – that hasn’t stopped anyone from speculating No strong global magnetic field to confuse matters, just a weak patchy magnetic field whose effects are not really included in models yet Need to worry about 3D, unlike much chemistry and T(z) work Winds caused by variations in solar heating (daily, seasonal, annual, solar cycle) ~100 ms -1 plausible Hot dayside has p(z 0 ) greater than cold nightside, pressure differences drive global thermospheric circulation that transports heat from dayside to nightside, rotation timescale causes a phase lag. Lower atmosphere influences this. Dust storms heat and inflate lower atm, change day/night gradients and winds. Also large tides propagating upwards from lower atmosphere can cause pressure gradients and winds. Low mass => very responsive to changes in external forcings MGS accelerometer might provide some observations

15. Chemistry Both lower and upper atmosphere Odd hydrogen species (H, OH, HO 2 ) derived from photolysis of H 2 O catalyse the recombination of CO and O 2 into CO 2. H 2 O and O 3 are anti-correlated. If H 2 O is present, it is photolysed into odd hydrogen species and then catalyses the conversion of O 3 into O 2 and O 2 back into CO 2. If H 2 O is not present, then the O 2 can be converted into O 3. There’s some nitrogen as well 5 – 110 nm solar EUV changes by factors of a few over 11 yr solar cycle, might this alter the chemistry? Viking entry and landed mass spectrometers, VO MAWD, M9 UV Spec

16. From reference 2

17. From reference 3

18. From reference 2

19. From reference 3 From reference 2

20. Ionosphere Odd nitrogen is important here Photoionization of CO 2 by solar EUV Peak plasma density ~ 1E5 cm -3 and height of peak is ~ 135 km, also a secondary peak around 115 km. Primary peak is controlled by photochemistry, not dynamics. Patchy magnetic field has significant effects. Ionopause, or sharp drop in ion densities at top of ionosphere due to solar wind, at about 400 km. Need to look at a Mitchell or Acuna paper for some details here. Nightside very poorly constrained Many radio occultations of electron density, Viking entry in situ RPA identified species

21. From reference 3

22. Atmospheric Escape Affects elemental and isotopic composition over the lifetime of the solar system. Extremely uncertain. Light species escape easier than heavy ones, so get fractionation Exobase height ~ 160 km at solar max. Corona of H observed by Ly  emissions by UV spectrometers, thermal Jeans escape. Only H, He can use this mechanism. 1E26 H atoms s -1. Low g means that escape is relatively easy. Dissociative recombination of N 2 + and O 2 + with an electron to form suprathermal 2N or 2O is a major current pathway. Current escape rates of H twice that of O, net loss of H 2 O. Possibly regulated by lower atmosphere photochemistry. Bury CO 2 and H 2 0 on/below surface Impact erosion strips atmosphere without mass selection History of magnetic field is important here Warm, wet early Mars? M9 UVS, ion profiles, isotopic ratios

23. Modelling Efforts 1D coupled chemistry and radiative transfer models. Specify composition and solar flux, model chemical reactions and transfer of energy by radiation and other processes 3D General Circulation Models (GCMs). Couple dynamics, chemistry, and energy. Martian upper atmosphere not constrained enough by observations for these to be verified yet. Past and future extrapolations of escape rates – how does orbit change, magnetic field, subsurface volatile reservoirs? Current escape processes not measured or modelled with real accuracy.

24. From reference 6 Venus, Earth, and Mars Compared

25. Table la. Terrestrial Planet Parameters Parameter Earth Venus Mars Gravity, cm s -2 982 888 373 Heliocentric distance AU 1.0 0.72 1.38-1.67 Radius, km 6371 6050 3396 Omega rad s -1 7.3(-5) 3.0(-7) 7.1(-5) Magnetic dipole moment (wrt Earth) 1.0 ~4.0(-5) ~2.5(-5) Obliquity, deg 23.5 1-3 25.0 Table lb. Implications of Parameters Effect Earth Venus Mars Scale heights, km 10-50 4-12 8-22 Major EUV heating, km ~200-300 ~140-160 120-160 broad narrow intermediate 0 Abundance (ion peak) ~40% ~7-20% ~1-4% CO 2 15  m cooling </=130 km </=160 km </=125-130 km Dayside thermostat conduction CO 2 cooling winds/conduction Dayside solar cycle T 900-1500 K 230-310 K 220-325 K Rotational forces important negligible important Cryosphere no yes no Auroral/Joule heating yes no no Seasons yes no yes From reference 6

26. Recent and Upcoming Observations MGS RS, ACC, ER, MAG Mars Odyssey ACC Mars Express ASPERA will measure energetic neutrals, ions, electrons Mars Express PFS will measure atmospheric composition via a Fourier spectrometer Mars Express SPICAM will measure H 2 O and O 3 Nozomi is doomed Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter ACC

27. Mars Aeronomy Orbiter Discussion From Belton report

28. Sources 1)Barth et al. (1992) “Aeronomy of the current martian atmosphere.” In Kieffer et al. (Eds.) “Mars,” pp. 1054-1089 2)Yung and DeMore (1999) “Photochemistry of Planetary Atmospheres,” particularly pp. 244-281 3)Gladstone et al. (2002) “Solar System Upper Atmospheres: Photochemistry, Energetics, and Dynamics.” In Mendillo et al. (Eds.) “Atmospheres in the Solar System Comparative Aeronomy,” pp. 23-38 4)Nagy and Cravens (2002) “Solar System Ionospheres.” In Mendillo et al. (Eds.) “Atmospheres in the Solar System Comparative Aeronomy,” pp. 39-54 5)Hunten (2002) “Exospheres and Planetary Escape.” In Mendillo et al. (Eds.) “Atmospheres in the Solar System Comparative Aeronomy,” pp. 191-202 6)Bougher et al. (2002) “Simulations of the Upper Atmospheres of Terrestrial Planets.” In Mendillo et al. (Eds.) “Atmospheres in the Solar System Comparative Aeronomy,” pp. 261-288 7)Haberle (2000) “Mars: Atmosphere.” In Shirley and Fairbridge (Eds.) “Encyclopedia of Planetary Sciences,” pp. 432-440 8)Bougher (2000) “Thermosphere.” In Shirley and Fairbridge (Eds.) “Encyclopedia of Planetary Sciences,” pp. 819-825 9)Hunten (1993) “Atmospheric evolution of the terrestrial planets,” Science, v259, pp. 915-920