1. 14 April: The Core of the Constitution Last time: Introduction to to multidimensional modeling. Today: Homework assignment: Problems 1.2 and 1.5 from Stewart (2 and 5 from chapter 1) The Constitutional origins of Congress Bicameralism Gate-keeping vs agenda power Omnibus bills vs issue-by-issue voting We want to get down the importance of agenda power and start understanding the concept of "structure-induced equilibrium"

2. The chaos argument When policies have 2+ dimensions, there generally is no “best” policy, in the sense of a Condorcet winner. This means that we have no reason to expect policy to be stable over time Through a (short) sequence of elections with winners a, b, …, n, we could elect a candidate n who is unanimously regarded as worse than a. Similarly, leaders with agenda powers may be able via a sequence of choices to get a group to choose a policy that EVERYONE else thinks is worse than what the group started with

3. Dealing with complexity How do real legislatures deal? –backwards agendas –endogenous choices of rules, procedures, leaders (perhaps within a constitutional structure and/or expectations conditioned by history) Instead of “preference-induced equilibria” we expect (or search for) “structure-induced equilibria”.

4. Structure-induced equilibrium Equilibrium: a “stable” outcome –if the s.q. is such that no majority can agree to an alternative, it is a “preference-induced equilibrium” –if there are alternatives to which a majority would agree, but rules, procedures or leaders block change, it is a “structure-induced equilibrium.” A more pejorative term is “gridlock” when a majority wishes to change the policy but is blocked

5. Back to Line Land Gatekeeping power: Legislation may be considered in a policy area X iff (if and only if) the gatekeeper gives the go-ahead –once the standing rules of the House have been adopted, a “special rule” for considering a bill can only come to the floor if reported by the Rules Committee –A Constitutional Convention for generally revising the Constitution can only be called by Congress after petition by the legislatures of 2/3 of the states –single amendments can be put before the states only by Congress (following passage of the resolution by 2/3 of each chamber)

6. More Line Land Agenda control: who may offer specific alternatives to the status quo/reversionary policy? –Only a member of Congress may introduce a bill –Only the president may nominate individuals for the federal judiciary; only the prez may propose treaties –Legislative agenda control closed rule: no alternatives to the bill may be offered by anyone modified closed rule: only specific alternatives may be offered modified open rule: only specified parts of the bill are open to amendment open rule: all parts of the bill are open to amendment

7. The setter model Referendum voting: a bureaucrat or the legislature places a measure on the ballot. How large a policy change can be effected? –hypothetical example: current tax policy will raise $100B. The median legislator would most like that to be cut to $80B. The chairman of the tax committee is authorized to propose a bill under a closed rule. –What does she propose if her ideal tax level is $50B? $70B? $110B?

8. Organizing chaos How do real legislatures deal with complex questions? Bills are written in titles, parts, sections, subsections, etc. –the House typically marks up one title/part/section/whatever at a time –amendments in the House must be germane to the part of the bill open for amendment Complex questions may be divided on motion (may require implicit or explicit majority support) unless division is prevented by a special rule So, in principle, complex, multidimensional questions may be broken up into a series of simpler, one-dimensional questions –each issue has a median voter –issue-by-issue median or issue-by-issue setter

9. The Continental Congresses 1 st Continental Congress met in 1774 – a “meeting of committees” from the various colonies to discuss grievances against the Crown Called by the Committees of Correspondence established in 1772 by Sam Adams Every colony except Georgia sent at least one delegate to Philly, meeting in September, 1774 –Mass., R.I. and Penn. colonial assemblies appted; others were appted by provincial conventions or rump meetings of dissolved or informally convened legislatures –most were tightly “instructed” Formed a “Continental Association” –renewal of a trade boycott with Britain –system of committees to inspect customs entries to try to enforce the boycott; these committees were dominated by agitators for independence

10. Continental Congresses, cont. 2 nd Continental Congress met in May, 1775, after Lexington and Concord. May 15, voted to go to war and placed colonial militias in Continental service. Structure and procedures: –elected a President (presiding officer) modeled on Speaker of the House of Commons –proceedings to be secret –“Orders of the Day” –unit-rule voting –ad hoc committees nominated and elected from the floor using a limited-vote rule; top vote-getter as chair

11. Issues arising from the Articles period states chose delegates; delegates were term- limited; rotation/replacement frequent; absenteeism high unit-rule voting in Congress with super-majority required for quorum and agreement –minimum 9 states quorum, 9 yes votes for “important” issues; otherwise need a majority of the states – i.e., 7 taxes collected by the states, not national govt unicameral legislature appointed executive branch

12. Unicameralism Recall the “chaos problem” –any status quo point can be beaten by majority vote by a whole bunch of alternatives –even with a backwards agenda, policy can move around a lot Where will policy end up? 2 guesses –the “pareto set” (efficiency expectation) –the “uncovered set” (limited agenda depth) Adding institutions can further limit “chaos” –the Continental Congress’s solution was to make change very easy to block – lots of “gridlock”

13. Bicameralism The new constitution created a second chamber with co-equal legislative powers and simple-majority quorum and bill-passage requirements If the bill picked by the House is outside the Senate’s “win set” of the status quo, what happens? If the bill is inside the Senate’s “win set” of Q, then what? If the status quo lies inside one chamber’s “uncovered set” but outside the other’s, what happens?

14. For next time House and Senate in the 19 th century For the Senate readings, go to the Senate’s website, www.senate.govwww.senate.gov –then click on “Art and History” –then click on “Origins and Development”. You will find the “Institutional” and “Chronology” readings there