1. Writing Reports and Proposals
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After studying this chapter, you will be able to do the following:
Explain how to adapt to your audiences when writing reports and proposals and provide an overview of the process of drafting report content
Provide an overview of the process of drafting proposal content and list six strategies for strengthening proposal arguments
Identify five characteristics of effective writing in online reports and explain how to adapt your writing approach for wikis
Discuss six principles of graphic design and explain how to choose which points in your message to illustrate
Identify the most common types of visuals used to present data, information, concepts, and ideas
Explain how to integrate visuals with text effectively and how to verify the quality of your visuals

2. Reports and Proposals Effective Writing Visual Aids
This chapter builds on the writing techniques and ideas you learned in Chapter 5 and provides a discussion of issues that are particularly important when preparing longer messages. In addition, you will find an overview of creating effective visual aids, a vital aspect of many reports and proposals.
As with shorter messages, take a few moments before you start writing to make sure you are ready to adapt your approach to your audience.

3. Audience Adaptation The “You” Attitude Style and Language
Appropriate Tone
Cultural Sensitivity
To promote your success with reports and proposals, be sensitive to audience needs, build strong relationships with your audience, and control your style and tone.
Reports and proposals that are highly technical, complex, or lengthy can put heavy demands on your readers, so the “you” attitude is especially important with these long messages.
Be sure to plan how you will adapt your style and your language to reflect the image of your organization.
If you know your readers reasonably well and your report is likely to meet with their approval, you can adopt a fairly informal tone—provided that doing so is acceptable in the situation and in your company’s culture. A more formal tone is usually appropriate for longer reports, especially those dealing with controversial or complex information. You will also want to use a more formal tone when your report will be sent to other parts of the organization or to outsiders, such as customers, suppliers, or members of the community.
Communicating with people in other cultures often calls for more formality for two reasons. First, the business environment outside the United States tends to be more formal in general. Second, the things you do to make a document informal (such as using humor and idiomatic language) tend to translate poorly or not at all from one culture to another, so you risk offending or confusing your readers.

4. Composing Reports and Proposals
Introduction
Body
Conclusion
Report Context
Subject/Purpose
Main Ideas
Overall Tone
Presentation
Analysis
Interpretation
Support
Main Points
Benefits
Action Items
Action Details
As with other written business communications, reports and proposals have three main sections: an introduction, a body, and a close.
An effective introduction accomplishes at least four things:
Puts the document in a broader context by tying it to a problem or an assignment.
Introduces the subject or purpose and why the subject is important.
Previews the main ideas and the order in which they will be covered.
Establishes the tone of the document and the writer’s relationship with the audience.
The body is the middle section in the text of your report or proposal. It consists of the major divisions or chapters (with various levels of headings for long documents). These divisions present, analyze, and interpret the information gathered during your investigation, and they support the recommendations or conclusions discussed in your document.
The closing has three functions:
Emphasizes the main points of the message.
Summarizes the benefits to the reader if the document suggests a change or some other course of action.
Brings all the action items together in one place and gives the details about who should do what, when, where, and how.

5. Drafting Report Content
Balanced
Clear and
Logical
Documented
Properly
Accurate
Complete
Your credibility and future success are on the line with every business report you write. You will create more successful reports if your content has the following characteristics:
Accuracy. Information presented in a report must be factual, correct, and error free. When writing reports, be sure to double-check your facts and references, in addition to checking for typos.
Completeness. To help colleagues or supervisors make a decision, include all the information they will need to understand the situation, problem, or proposal. Support all key assertions using illustrations, explanations, and facts. Tell your readers what they need to know, in a way that meets their needs.
Balance. Present all sides of the issue fairly, and include all necessary information. Omitting relevant information or facts can make your report biased.
Clarity and logic. Clear sentence structure and good transitions are essential. Identify the ideas that belong together, and organize them in a way that is easy to understand.
Proper documentation. When using primary and secondary sources for your report or proposal, document and give credit to your sources.

6. Opportunity or Purpose
Report Introduction
Authorization
Scope of Coverage
Sources and Methods
Limitations
Opportunity or Purpose
Background
Terms and Definitions
Report Organization
The specific elements you should include in an introduction depend on the nature and length of the report, the circumstances in which you are writing it, and your relationship with the audience. An introduction could contain any or all of the following elements:
Authorization. When, how, and by whom the report was authorized, who wrote it, and when it was submitted.
Problem/opportunity/purpose. The reason for the report’s existence and what it is supposed to accomplish.
Scope. What is and what is not going to be covered in the report. The scope indicates the report’s size and complexity; it also helps with the critical job of setting the audience’s expectations.
Background. The conditions or factors that led up to the report. This section enables readers to understand how the problem, situation, or opportunity developed and what has been done about it so far.
Sources and methods. The primary and secondary sources of information used.
Definitions. A list of terms that might be unfamiliar to your audience, along with brief definitions.
Limitations. This section does not excuse a lack of effort or poor performance; however, it should present factors that were beyond your control.
Report organization. What topics are covered and in what order, along with a rationale for using a given organizational scheme, if appropriate.

7. The Report Body Explanations of problem or opportunity
Facts, statistics, and trends
Results of studies or investigations
Discussion and analysis of potential actions
Advantages, disadvantages, costs, and benefits
The body of your report can require some tough decisions about which elements to include and how much detail to offer as supporting evidence. Some audiences and situations require detailed coverage; others can be handled with more concise treatment. Provide only enough detail in the body to support your conclusions and recommendations; put additional detail in tables, charts, and appendixes.
The topics commonly covered in the body of a report include the following:
Explanations of the problem or opportunity that caused the report to be written
Facts, statistical evidence, and trends used in the discussion
Results of studies or investigations conducted during the preparation of the report
Discussion and analyses of potential courses of action
Advantages, disadvantages, costs, and benefits of a particular course of action

8. The Report Body Procedures or steps in a process
Methods and approaches
Criteria for evaluating options
Conclusions and recommendations
Support for conclusions and recommendations
The body of a report may also include several more topics:
Procedures or steps in a process
Methods and approaches used to solve problems
Criteria for evaluating alternatives and options
Conclusions and recommendations (in direct reports)
Supporting reasons for conclusions or recommendations
For analytical reports using the direct approach, you can state your conclusions or recommendations in the introduction and use the body to provide your evidence and support. With the indirect approach, you can use the body to discuss your logic and reserve your conclusions or recommendations until the close.

9. The Report Closing Summary Conclusions Recommendations Action Plans
The content and length of your report’s close depend on your choice of direct or indirect order, among other variables.
With a direct approach, you can end with a summary of key points, listed in the order they appear in the body of the report.
With an indirect approach, you can use the close to present your conclusions or recommendations, if you did not end the body with them. However, do not introduce new facts in your close; your audience should have all the information they need by the time they reach this point.
If your report is intended to prompt others to action, use the ending to spell out exactly what should happen next. If you will be taking all the actions yourself, make sure your readers understand this fact, so that they will know what to expect from you.
In a short report, the close may be only a paragraph or two. However, the close of a long report may have separate sections for conclusions, recommendations, and actions. Using separate sections helps your reader locate this material and focus on each element. If you have multiple conclusions, recommendations, or actions, you may want to number and list them.

10. Content of Proposals Introduction Body Closing Attention Interest
Desire
Action
Solicited
Proposal
Unsolicited
Like reports, proposals have an introduction, a body, and a close. The content for each section is governed by many variables—the most important being the source of your proposal. If your proposal is unsolicited, you have some latitude in the scope and organization of content. However, the scope and organization of a solicited proposal are usually governed by the request for proposal (RFP).
The general purpose of any proposal is to persuade readers to do something, such as purchase goods or services, fund a project, or implement a program. Thus, your writing approach for a proposal is similar to that used for persuasive sales messages (see Chapter 10). As with any persuasive message, you can use the AIDA model to gain attention, build interest, create desire, and motivate action (of course, you may need to adapt this model if you are responding to a request for proposal).

11. Strategies for Success
Demonstrate
Your Knowledge
Research
the Competition
Relate to Your
Audience’s Needs
Provide
Concrete Examples
Offer a
Workable Proposal
Present an
Attractive Package
Your proposal must sell your audience on your ideas, product, service, methods, and company. As noted, you can use the AIDA model to structure your message. Here are some additional strategies to strengthen your argument:
Demonstrate your knowledge. Everything you write should show your reader that you have the knowledge and experience to solve the problem.
Provide concrete information and examples. Avoid vague, unsupported generalizations. Instead, spell out your plan and give details on how the job will be done. Remember that concrete examples persuade readers; unsupported generalizations do not.
Research the competition. Understanding and countering what your competitors have to offer will help you stress why your solution is the optimal choice.
Prove that your proposal is workable. Your proposal must be appropriate and feasible for the audience.
Adopt a “you” attitude. Relate your product, service, or personnel to the reader’s exact needs.
Package your proposal attractively. Make sure your proposal is letter perfect, inviting, and readable.

12. Proposal Introduction
Background
Scope
Solution
Organization
The introduction presents and summarizes the problem you want to solve and your solutions. It orients the readers to the remainder of the text. If your proposal is solicited, its introduction should refer to the RFP; if unsolicited, its introduction should mention any factors that led you to submit your proposal. The following topics are commonly covered in the introduction:
Background or statement of the problem or opportunity. Briefly review the reader’s situation and establish the need for action. Readers may not perceive a problem or opportunity the same way you do. In a way that is meaningful to them, discuss the current situation and explain how things could be better.
Solution. Briefly describe the change you propose and highlight your key selling points and their benefits, showing how your proposal will solve the reader’s problem.
Scope. State the boundaries of the proposal––what you will and will not do. This brief section may also be labeled “Delimitations.”
Report organization. Orient the reader to the remainder of the proposal and call attention to the major divisions of thought.

13. The Proposal Body Solution Qualifications Work Plan Detailed Cost
The proposal’s body has the same purpose as the body of other reports. It gives complete details on the proposed solution and specifies what the anticipated results will be. In addition to providing facts and evidence to support your conclusions, an effective body covers the following information:
Proposed solution. This section describes what you have to offer: your concept, product, or service. Show how your product or service will benefit your readers, and point out advantages that you have over your competitors.
Work plan. This element describes how you will accomplish what must be done: the steps that will be taken and their timing, the methods or resources that will be used, and the persons who will be responsible.
Statement of qualifications. This part describes your organization’s experience, personnel, and facilities—all in relation to the needs of your readers.
Costs. Estimating costs is difficult, so prove that your costs are realistic by breaking them down in detail. Then, your readers can see how you got your numbers for each category, such as labor, materials, transportation, travel, or training.

14. The Proposal Closing Key Points Qualifications Benefits Commitment
The final section of a proposal generally summarizes the key points; emphasizes the benefits that readers will realize from your solution; summarizes the merits of your approach, and underscores why you and your firm are qualified to perform the service or provide the products in question; and asks for a decision from the reader. The close is your last opportunity to persuade readers to accept your proposal. Make this section relatively brief, assertive, and confident.

15. Collaborating on Wikis
Forgo traditional expectations
Edit and improve each other’s work
Use templates and formatting options
Apply the appropriate tools
Practice in the “sandbox”
Using wikis is a great way for teams and other groups to collaborate on writing projects, from brief articles to long reports and reference works. The benefits of wikis are compelling, but they do require a unique approach to writing. To be a valuable wiki contributor, keep these points in mind:
Writers need to let go of traditional expectations of authorship, including individual recognition and control. The value of a wiki stems from the collective insight of all its contributors.
Team members sometimes need to be encouraged to edit and improve each other’s work.
Using page templates and other formatting options can help to ensure that your content fits the same style as the rest of the wiki.
Use the separate editing and discussion capabilities appropriately.
New users should take advantage of the sandbox, a “safe,” non-published section of the wiki where team members can practice editing and writing.
Wikis usually have guidelines to help new contributors integrate their work into the group’s ongoing effort. Be sure to read and understand these guidelines, and do not be afraid to ask for help.

16. Three-Step Wiki Process
Creating a Wiki
Adding Content
Revising Content
You can easily adapt the three-step writing process for wikis, depending on whether you are creating a new wiki, adding new material to an existing wiki, or revising existing material on a wiki.
If you are creating a new wiki, think through your long-term purpose carefully, just as you would with a new blog or podcast channel. Will the wiki be a one-time event or an ongoing effort? Who will be allowed to add or modify content? Will you or someone else serve as editor, reviewing all additions and changes? What rules and guidelines will you establish to guide the growth of the wiki? What security measures might be required?
If you are adding a page or an article to an existing wiki, figure out how this new material fits in with the existing structure of the wiki. Find out if any similar material already exists; it might be better to expand an existing article or add a subpage than to create a new item. Also, learn the wiki’s preferred style for handling incomplete articles.
If you are revising or updating an existing wiki article, evaluate the content before you make any changes. If you do not agree with published content and plan to revise it, use the wiki’s discussion feature to share your concerns with other contributors.

17. Guiding the Readers Previews and Reviews Transitional Devices Headings
and Links
Structure
Key Points
Consistency
Words
Phrases
Paragraphs
Introductions
Overviews
Summaries
Good writers give their readers a preview of a report’s structure, clarifying how the various parts are related. Three tools are useful for giving readers a sense of the overall structure of your document and for keeping them on track: headings and links, smooth transitions, and previews and reviews.
Headings and links help readers follow the structure of your document and pick up key points of your message from the headings and subheadings. Follow a simple, consistent arrangement that clearly distinguishes levels.
Transitions are words or phrases that tie ideas together and show how one thought is related to another. In a long report, an entire paragraph might be used to highlight transitions from one section to the next.
Previews and reviews introduce important or complex topics by helping readers get ready for new information. Review sections come after a body of material and summarize key points to help readers absorb that material.

18. Technology for Reports and Proposals
Templates
Electronic Forms
Multimedia
Documents
Embedded and
Linked Documents
Electronic
Proposal-Writing
Software
Creating lengthy reports and proposals can be a huge task, so take advantage of technological tools to help throughout the process. Here are some of the most important tools for developing reports and proposals:
Templates. Beyond simply formatting documents, report templates can identify the specific sections required for each type of report.
Linked and embedded documents. Reports and proposals often include graphics, spreadsheets, databases, and other elements created in a variety of software packages. When you do combine files this way, make sure you know how the software handles the files, or else you may receive some unpleasant surprises.
Electronic forms. For recurring forms such as sales reports and compliance reports, consider creating a word processor file that combines boilerplate text for material that does not change from report to report.
Electronic documents. Portable Document Format (PDF) files have become a universal replacement for printed reports and proposals.
Multimedia documents. When the written word is not enough, combine your report with video clips, animation, presentation software slides, and other elements.
Proposal-writing software. This software can automatically personalize proposals, ensure proper structure, and organize storage of all boilerplate text. It can also scan RFPs to identify questions or requirements and provide answers from a centralized knowledge base.

19. The Power of Images Enhance textual messages Replace verbal messages
Convey complex information
Hold people’s attention
Communicate with diverse audiences
Convey connotative meaning
Well-designed visual elements can enhance the communication power of textual messages, and in some instances, even replace them. Visuals can convey some complex message points more effectively and efficiently than words. Generally speaking, in a given amount of time, well-designed images can convey much more information than text.
Visuals attract and hold people’s attention by helping them understand and remember your message. Busy readers often jump to visuals to try to get the gist of a message, and attractive visuals can draw readers deeper into your reports and presentations. Pictures are also an effective way to communicate with the diverse audiences that are common in today’s business environment.
In addition to their direct information value, a significant part of the power—and risk—of visual elements derives from their connotative meanings. Many colors, shapes, and other design elements have visual symbolism, and their symbolic, connotative meaning can evolve over time and mean different things in different cultures.

20. Visual Literacy Create Images Interpret Images Consistency Balance
Contrast
Emphasis
Simplicity
Convention
Visual Literacy
Visual literacy is the ability to create visual images and interpret visual messages. It has become an essential business skill. Creating effective visuals requires the use of six basic principles:
Consistency. Audiences view a series of visuals as a whole and assume that design elements will be consistent from one page to the next. You can achieve visual parallelism through the consistent use of color, shape, size, texture, position, scale, or typeface.
Contrast. Readers expect visual distinctions to match verbal ones. To emphasize differences, depict items in contrasting colors. To emphasize similarities, use more subtle colors.
Balance. Images that appear to be out of balance can be unsettling. Balance can be formal, in which the elements in the images are arranged symmetrically around a central point or axis. Balance can also be informal, in which stronger and weaker elements are arranged in such a way that achieves an overall effect of balance.
Emphasis. Make sure that the visually dominant element really does represent the most important information, and visually downplay less important items.
Convention. Visual communication is guided by generally accepted rules or conventions, just as written communication is guided by spelling, grammar, punctuation, and usage conventions. Many conventions are so ingrained in a given culture that people do not even realize they are following them.
Simplicity. Keep business communication visuals simple. Remember that you are conveying information, not creating artwork. Furthermore, avoid chartjunk, decorative elements that clutter documents without adding any relevant information.

21. The Ethics of Visual Communication
Consider All Possible Interpretations
Provide Appropriate Context
Do Not Conceal Negative Information
Do Not Exaggerate Support Information
The potential power of visuals places an ethical burden on every business communicator. This situation involves not only the obvious requirement of avoiding intentional ethical lapses but the more complex requirement of avoiding unintentional lapses as well. Ethical problems can range from photos that play on racial or gender stereotypes to graphs that distort data. You can work to avoid ethical lapses in your visuals by following these guidelines:
Consider all possible interpretations—and misinterpretations. Try to view your visuals from your audience’s perspective: will their biases, beliefs, or backgrounds lead them to different conclusions than you have intended?
Provide context. Even when they are completely accurate, visuals show only a partial view of reality. Part of your responsibility as a communicator is to provide not only accurate visuals but enough background information to help the audience interpret them correctly.
Do not hide or minimize negative information that runs counter to your argument. Obscuring information prevents your audiences from making fully informed decisions regarding your content.
Do not exaggerate information that supports your argument. You have a responsibility not to oversell information in support of your argument. Therefore, resist the temptation to alter or enhance photographs and other images in ways that support your arguments.

22. The Ethics of Visual Communication
Do Not Oversimplify Complex Situations
Do Not Imply Cause and Effect
Avoid Manipulation or Coercion
Be Careful How You Aggregate Data
Do not oversimplify complex situations. By their very nature, visuals tend to present simplified views of reality. This is usually a benefit and is one of the key reasons for using visuals, such as a flowchart, to provide an overview of a complicated process. However, take care not to mislead an audience by hiding complications that are important to their understanding of the situation.
Do not imply cause-and-effect relationships without providing proof that they exist. Claim a causal relationship only when you can isolate the factor that can account for the result in question.
Avoid emotional manipulation or other forms of coercion. Visuals can be used persuasively in emotional appeals. However, you must take care not to overstep into unethical manipulation.
Be careful with the way you aggregate data. Preparing charts, graphs, and tables that present data often involves decisions about aggregating, or grouping, data. Whatever the situation, the decisions you make about aggregating the data can have a profound effect on the message your audience receives.

23. The 5 C’s of Visual Design
Choosing Points
to Illustrate
The 5 C’s of Visual Design
Clear
Complete
Concise
Connected
Compelling
To help identify which parts of your message can benefit from visual support, consider your message from the audience’s point of view. When you are deciding which points to present visually, think of the 5 C’s:
Clear. The human mind is extremely adept at processing visual information. If you are having difficultly conveying an idea in words, take a minute to brainstorm some visual possibilities.
Complete. Visuals often provide the supporting details for key ideas or recommendations. A table or other visual can provide these details without getting in the way of your main message.
Concise. You have probably heard the phrase, “A picture is worth a thousand words.” If a particular section of your message seems to require extensive descriptions or explanations, see whether there is a way to convey this information visually.
Connected. A key purpose of many business messages is showing connections of some sort—similarities or differences, cause-and-effect relationships, and so on. When you want readers to see such a connection, try using a chart, diagram, or other illustration.
Compelling. Your readers live in a highly visual world. Will one or more illustrations make your message more persuasive, more interesting, and more likely to be read?
As you identify which points in your document would benefit from visuals, make sure that each visual you choose to show has a clear purpose.

24. Pick the Right Visuals Data and Information Concepts and Ideas
Once you have identified which points would benefit most from being presented visually, your next decision is choosing which type of visual to use for each message point. For certain types of information, the decision is usually obvious. If you want to present a large set of numerical values or detailed textual information, for example, a table is the best choice in most cases. Also, certain visuals are used more commonly for certain applications; for instance, your audience expects line charts to be used to show trends over time.

25. The Parts of a Table Subhead Row head Total Multicolumn Head* XXX XX
Source: (In the same format as a text footnote).
*Footnote (for explanation of elements in the table).
Subhead
Row head
Total
Multicolumn Head*
XXX XX
Single-Column Head
When you have to present detailed, specific information, choose a table, a systematic arrangement of data in columns and rows. Tables are ideal when the audience needs information that would be either difficult or tedious to handle in the main text.
Most tables contain the standard parts illustrated above.

26. Preparing Data Tables Common Units Consistent Usage Column Headings
Many tables are strictly numerical. When preparing such tables, observe the following guidelines:
Use common, understandable units, and clearly identify them (such as dollars, percentages, price per ton).
Express all items in a column in the same unit, and round off for simplicity.
Label column headings clearly, and use a subhead if necessary.

27. Preparing Data Tables Rows and Columns Totals and Averages
Data Sources
Separate columns or rows with lines or extra space to make the table easy to follow.
Provide totals or averages of columns when relevant.
Document the source of the data using the same format as a text footnote.

28. Line and Surface Charts
Relationships
Trends
Variables
2011
2010
2008
2009
70%
60%
50%
40%
A line chart, or line graph, is commonly used to show trends over time or the relationship of two or more variables. In line charts showing trends, the vertical (y-axis) shows the amount, and the horizontal (x-axis) shows the time or other quantity against which the amount is being measured.

29. Average Kiln Temps Temperature °F
If you need to compare two or more sets of data, you can plot them on the same line chart for instant visual comparison. Two or three lines on a single chart are usually easy to read, but beyond that, things can get confusing, particularly if the lines cross.

30. Home Game Ticket Sales Average Per Game 10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000
10,000
20,000
30,000
40,000
50,000
60,000
70,000
80,000
90,000
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
Other
Students
Families
Alumni
Staff
A surface chart, also called an area chart, is a form of line chart with a cumulative effect; all the lines add up to the top line, which represents the total. This form of chart helps you illustrate changes in the composition of something over time. When preparing a surface chart, put the most important segment against the baseline, and restrict the number of strata to four or five.

31. Using Bar Charts Compare Items Show Changes Indicate Composition
Show Relative Sizes
Indicate Composition
Show Changes
Compare Items
A bar chart, or bar graph, portrays numbers by the height or length of its rectangular bars, making a series of numbers easy to read or understand. Bar charts are particularly valuable when you want to:
Compare the size of several items at one time
Show changes in one item over time
Indicate the composition of several items over time
Show the relative size of components of a whole

32. CommuniCo Staff Computer Skills
Bar charts can appear in various forms. The singular bar chart above represents the various computer skills of CommuniCo’s staff.

33. CommuniCo Preferred Communication Media
This segmented bar chart shows the preferred communication media in CommuniCo’s sales, engineering, and administrative departments.

34. CommuniCo Employee Training Costs
Head Count
Training Costs
2,000
4,000
6,000
8,000
10,000
12,000
14,000
16,000
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011 $0
$1,000
$2,000
$3,000
$4,000
$5,000
$6,000
$7,000
$8,000
This combination bar chart shows CommuniCo’s training costs, as they relate to the number of employees on staff from 2006 through 2011.

35. Using Pie Charts Show Distribution Show Percentages Compare Segments
Like segmented bar charts and area charts, a pie chart shows how parts of a whole are distributed. Each segment represents a slice of a complete circle, or pie. Pie charts are an effective way to show percentages or to compare one segment with another. Pie charts can be useful to show relative percentages quickly and dramatically, such as when you want to emphasize that a part of the whole is much larger than the rest. However, a pie chart may not be the best choice when readers need to find and compare specific data amounts. In such cases, consider a bar chart or a table instead.

36. Percentage of Time Spent Online By Age Group
The pie chart above represents the percentage of time spent online by various age groups. Notice that the largest slice starts at 12:00 o’clock. Different colors are used to represent the various age groups. Finally, percentages represent the values of the segments (for a total of 100%).

37. Data Visualization Data Limits Graphic Variety Data Complexity
Conventional charts and graphs are limited in two ways: they can represent only numeric data, and most types show only a limited number of data points before the display becomes too cluttered to interpret. A diverse class of display capabilities known as data visualization overcomes both of these drawbacks.
Data visualization displays can show hundreds, thousands, or even millions of data points, using a variety of graphical presentations. For instance, regional sales data can be displayed as three-dimensional “topography” maps to quickly show strong and weak areas.
Other kinds of visualization tools combine data with textual information to communicate complex or dynamic data much faster than conventional presentations can. For example, a tag cloud shows the relative frequency of terms, or tags (user-applied content labels), in survey data, articles, blogs, websites, or another collection of text. Data visualization is an exciting, dynamic field, so you can expect to see many innovations in the coming years.

38. Information, Concepts, and Ideas
Flow Charts
Organization Charts
Drawings
Maps
Photographs
Diagrams
Video
Animation
In addition to facts and figures, you need to present other types of information, from spatial relationships (such as the floor plan for a new office building) to abstract ideas (such as progress or competition). The most common types of visuals for these applications include flowcharts, organization charts, maps, drawings, diagrams, photographs, animation, and video.

39. Flow Chart of the Report Writing Process
Keyboard
Input
First
Hard Copy
Next
Style and
Spelling
Input/Edit
Submit
Report
Edit
Add?
OK?
Yes No
A flow chart illustrates a sequence of events from start to finish; it is indispensable when illustrating processes, procedures, and sequential relationships. For general business purposes, you do not need to be too concerned about the specific shapes in a flowchart, as long as they are used consistently. However, you should be aware of the formal flowchart “language,” in which each shape has a specific meaning (diamonds are decision points, rectangles are process steps, and so on).

40. The Chain of Command District A B C D E F G Region 1 2 3 4 5 Vice
President
Chief Executive
Officer
Executive
Vice President
As the name implies, an organization chart illustrates the positions, units, or functions of an organization and the way they interrelate. An organization’s normal communication channels are almost impossible to describe without the benefit of a chart like the one in this slide. These charts are not limited to organization structures, of course; as you saw Chapter 4, they can also be used to outline messages.

41. Maps as Visual Aids Simple Maps Geographic Information Systems
Online Resources
Geographic
Information Systems
Simple Maps
Distribution Routes
Market
Territories
Facilities
Locations
Maps are useful for showing market territories, distribution routes, and facilities locations. Maps are sometimes used in conjunction with aerial photographs to provide a richer view.
Simple maps are available via clip art libraries for your word processor and presentation software, but more powerful uses (such as automatically generating color-coded maps based on data inputs) usually require the specialized capabilities of geographic information systems. You may also want to explore online resources, such as Google Earth, which offers a variety of mapping and aerial photography features.

42. Drawings and Diagrams Networks Processes Operations Procedures
Although less commonly used than other visual aids, drawings and diagrams can be valuable elements in business reports and presentations. Simple drawings can show the network of suppliers in an industry, the flow of funds through a company, or the process for completing the payroll each week. More complex diagrams can convey technical topics, such as the operation of a machine or repair procedures.
Word processors and presentation software provide basic drawing capabilities. For more precise and professional illustrations, you will need a specialized package such as Microsoft Visio, Adobe Illustrator, or Google SketchUp. Moving a level beyond those programs, computer-aided design (CAD) systems such as Autodesk’s Autocad can produce extremely detailed architectural and engineering drawings.

43. Photographic Images Decorative Value Functional Copyright Issues
Level of
Detail
Ethical
Concerns
Photographs offer both functional and decorative value. With low-cost digital photography now widely available, virtually all writers can add photographs to documents, presentations, and web pages.
Online photo libraries and search engines make it easy to find digital photographs. Some of them are available for free, but professional collections require either a one-time payment for unlimited use (called royalty free) or an annual payment or other limited-use purchase (called rights managed).
Nothing can demonstrate the exact appearance of a new facility or a new product the way a photograph can. Sometimes, however, a photograph may show too much detail, such as in a repair manual. In such cases, drawings are preferred, since they limit the amount of detail being shown and can focus the reader’s attention on particular parts.
Technology makes it easy to use photographs in reports and presentations, but it also presents an important ethical concern. Software tools enable dramatic changes to photographs, changes which are often undetectable. To avoid ethical lapses, do not make any alterations that mislead the viewer or substantially change the message conveyed by the photo.

44. Animation and Video Shapes and Text Computer Animation Digital Video
Computer animation and video are among the most specialized forms of business visuals. You will not encounter many situations that require them, but when they are appropriate and done well, they offer unparalleled visual impact. At a simple level, you can animate shapes and text within Microsoft PowerPoint. At a more sophisticated level, software such as Adobe Flash enables the creation of multimedia files that include computer animation, digital video, and other elements.
A wide variety of tools are also available for digital video production. Product demonstrations, company overviews, promotional presentations, and training seminars are among the most popular applications of business video. With a little creativity, you can use video in everything from recruiting to contests that get customers or employees involved in the promotional process.

45. Creating Visual Aids Software Templates Style Quality
Computer software offers a variety of tools but does not automatically give you the design sensibility that is needed for effective visuals.
For important visuals, try to have a professional designer set up a template for the various types of visuals you and your colleagues need to create. In addition to helping ensure an effective design, templates save you the time of having to make numerous design decisions every time you create a chart or graphic.
No matter which tools you are using, take care to match the style and quality of your visuals with the subject matter and the situation at hand. The quality of your visuals communicates a subtle message about your relationship with the audience.

46. Integrate Text and Visuals
Maximize
Access
Minimize
Disruption
Reference Visuals
Position Visuals
Titles, Captions, Legends
Balance Text & Visuals
Successful integration of text and visuals involves four decisions: balancing visuals and text, referring to visuals in the text, placing the visuals in the document, and writing titles and other descriptions.
Strong visuals enhance the descriptive and persuasive power of your writing, but putting too many visuals in a report can distract your readers. Furthermore, the space occupied by visuals can disrupt the flow of text on the page or screen. Try to have a fairly even flow of text and visuals from page to page or screen to screen.
Visuals should be clearly referred to by number in the text of your report. Some report writers refer to all visuals as “exhibits” and number them consecutively; others number tables and figures separately.
Try to position your visuals so that your audience does not have to flip back and forth (in printed documents) or scroll onscreen between visuals and text. Ideally, place each visual within, beside, or immediately after the paragraph it illustrates. Always refer to each visual before a reader will encounter it in a document or onscreen.
Use titles, legends, and captions to connect text and visuals. A title is similar to a subheading, providing a short description that identifies the content and purpose of the visual. A descriptive title identifies the topic of the illustration. An informative title calls attention to the conclusion that should be drawn from the data. A caption usually offers additional discussion of the visual’s content and can be several sentences long if appropriate. A legend explains what various colors, symbols, or other design choices mean.

47. Verifying Visual Quality
Accuracy
Documentation
Honesty
Visuals have a particularly strong impact on your readers and on their perceptions of you and your work, so you must verify their quality. Take a few extra minutes to make sure that your visuals are absolutely accurate, properly documented, and honest.
Is the visual accurate? Be sure to check visuals for mistakes, such as typographical errors, inconsistent color treatment, confusing or undocumented symbols, and misaligned elements. Also verify that the information shown in the visuals coincides with the information in the text.
Is the visual properly documented? As with the textual elements in your reports and presentations, visuals based on other people’s research, information, and ideas require full citation.
Is the visual honest? Make sure that your visuals do not hide information the audience needs, imply conclusions that your information does not support, or play on audience emotions in manipulative or coercive ways.

48. Writing Business Reports and Proposals
This concludes the PowerPoint presentation on Chapter 12, “Writing Business
Reports and Proposals.” During this presentation, we have accomplished the
following learning objectives:
Explained how to adapt to your audiences when writing reports and proposals and provided an overview of the process of drafting report content
Provided an overview of the process of drafting proposal content and listed six strategies for strengthening proposal arguments
Identified five characteristics of effective writing in online reports and explained how to adapt your writing approach for wikis
Discussed six principles of graphic design and explained how to choose which points in your message to illustrate
Identified the most common types of visuals used to present data, information, concepts, and ideas
Explained how to integrate visuals with text effectively and how to verify the quality of your visuals
For more information about these topics, refer to Chapter 12 in Excellence in
Business Communication.