1. ThreadsCS-3013 C-term 20081 Threads CS-3013, Operating Systems C-Term 2008 (Slides include materials from Operating System Concepts, 7 th ed., by Silbershatz, Galvin, & Gagne and from Modern Operating Systems, 2 nd ed., by Tanenbaum)

2. ThreadsCS-3013 C-term 20082 Problem Processes in Unix, Linux, and Windows are “heavyweight” OS-centric view – performance Application-centric view – flexibility and application design

3. ThreadsCS-3013 C-term 20083 OS-centric View of Problem Lots of data in PCB & other data structures Even more when we study memory management More than that when we study file systems, etc. Processor caches a lot of information Memory Management information Caches of active pages Costly context switches and traps 100’s of microseconds

4. ThreadsCS-3013 C-term 20084 Application-centric View of Problem Separate processes have separate address spaces Shared memory is limited or nonexistent Applications with internal concurrency are difficult Isolation between independent processes vs. cooperating activities Fundamentally different goals

5. ThreadsCS-3013 C-term 20085 Example Web Server – How to support multiple concurrent requests One solution: –create several processes that execute in parallel –Use shared memory — shmget() — to map to the same address space into multiple processes –have the OS schedule them in parallel Clumsy and inefficient –Space and time: PCB, page tables, cloning entire process, etc. –programming: shmget() is really hard to program!

6. ThreadsCS-3013 C-term 20086 Example 2 Transaction processing systems E.g, airline reservations or bank ATM transactions 1000’s of transactions per second Very small computation per transaction Separate processes per transaction are too costly Other techniques (e.g., message passing) are much more complex

7. ThreadsCS-3013 C-term 20087 Example 3 Games have multiple active characters Independent behaviors Common context or environment Need “real-time” response to user For interactive gaming experience Programming all characters in separate processes is really, really hard! Programming them in a single process is much harder without concurrency support.

8. ThreadsCS-3013 C-term 20088 This problem … … is partly an artifact of Unix, Linux, and Windows and of Big, powerful processors (e.g., Pentium, Athlon) … tends to occur in most large systems … is infrequent in small-scale systems PDAs, cell phones Closed systems (i.e., controlled applications)

9. ThreadsCS-3013 C-term 20089 Solution:– Threads A thread is a particular execution of a program or procedure within the context of a Unix or Windows process I.e., a specialization of the concept of process A thread has its own Program counter, registers, PSW Stack A thread shares Address space, heap, static data, program code Files, privileges, all other resources with all other threads of the same process

10. ThreadsCS-3013 C-term 200810 Address Space Linux-Windows process 0x00000000 0xFFFFFFFF Virtual address space program code (text) static data heap (dynamically allocated) stack (dynamically allocated) PC SP See also Silbershatz, figure 3.1

11. ThreadsCS-3013 C-term 200811 Address Space for Multiple Threads 0x00000000 0xFFFFFFFF Virtual address space code (text) static data heap thread 1 stack PC (T2) SP (T2) thread 2 stack thread 3 stack SP (T1) SP (T3) PC (T1) PC (T3) SP PC

12. ThreadsCS-3013 C-term 200812 Single and Multithreaded Processes

13. ThreadsCS-3013 C-term 200813 Benefits Responsiveness Resource Sharing Economy Utilization of multi-processor architectures

14. ThreadsCS-3013 C-term 200814 Threads Unix, Windows, and older versions of Linux have their own thread interfaces Similar, not standardized Some issues E.g., ERRNO in Unix — a static variable set by system calls Semantics of fork() and exec()

15. ThreadsCS-3013 C-term 200815 Who creates and manages threads? User-level implementation –done with function library (e.g., POSIX) –Runtime system – similar to process management except in user space –Windows NT – fibers: a user-level thread mechanism Kernel implementation – new system calls and new entity to manage –Linux: lightweight process (LWP) –Windows NT & XP: threads

16. ThreadsCS-3013 C-term 200816 User Threads Thread management done by user-level threads library Three primary thread libraries: – – POSIX Pthreads – Win32 threads – Java threads

17. ThreadsCS-3013 C-term 200817 User Threads (continued) Can be implemented without kernel support … or knowledge! Program links with a runtime system that does thread management Operation are very efficient (procedure calls) Space efficient and all in user space (TCB) Task switching is very fast Since kernel not aware of threads, there can be scheduling inefficiencies E.g., blocking I/O calls Non-concurrency of threads on multiple processors

18. ThreadsCS-3013 C-term 200818 User Threads (continued) Thread Dispatcher –Queues in process memory to keep track of threads’ state Scheduler – non-preemptive –Assume threads are well-behaved –Thread voluntarily gives up CPU by calling yield() – does thread context switch to another thread Scheduler – preemptive –Assumes threads may not be well-behaved –Scheduler sets timer to create a signal that invokes scheduler –Scheduler can force thread context switch –Increased overhead Application or thread library must handle all concurrency itself!

19. ThreadsCS-3013 C-term 200819 Thread Interface E.g., POSIX pthreads API: –int pthread_create(pthread_t *thread, const pthread_attr_t *attr, void*(*start_routine) (void), void *arg) creates a new thread of control new thread begins executing at start_routine –pthread_exit(void *value_ptr) terminates the calling thread –pthread_join(pthread_t thread, void **value_ptr) blocks the calling thread until the thread specified terminates –pthread_t pthread_self() Returns the calling thread's identifier

20. ThreadsCS-3013 C-term 200820 Kernel Threads Supported by the Kernel OS maintains data structures for thread state and does all of the work of thread implementation. Examples Windows XP/2000 Solaris Linux version 2.6 Tru64 UNIX Mac OS X

21. ThreadsCS-3013 C-term 200821 Kernel Threads (continued) OS schedules threads instead of processes Benefits –Overlap I/O and computing in a process –Creation is cheaper than processes –Context switch can be faster than processes Negatives –System calls (high overhead) for operations –Additional OS data space for each thread

22. ThreadsCS-3013 C-term 200822 Threads – supported by processor E.g., Pentium 4 with Hyperthreading™ www.intel.com/products/ht/hyperthreading_more.htm Multiple processor cores on a single chip True concurrent execution within a single process Requires kernel support Re-opens old issues Deadlock detection Critical section management of synchronization primitives

23. ThreadsCS-3013 C-term 200823 Unix Processes vs. Threads On a 700 Mhz Pentium running Linux –Processes: fork()/exit() : 250 microsec –Kernel threads: pthread_create() / pthread_join() : 90 microsec –User-level threads: pthread_create() / pthread_join() : 5 microsec

24. ThreadsCS-3013 C-term 200824 Threading Issues Semantics of fork() and exec() system calls for processes Thread cancellation Signal handling Thread pools Thread specific data Scheduler activations

25. ThreadsCS-3013 C-term 200825 Semantics of fork() and exec() Does fork() duplicate only the calling thread or all threads? –Easy if user-level threads –Not so easy with kernel-level threads Linux has special clone() operation Windows XP has something similar

26. ThreadsCS-3013 C-term 200826 Thread Cancellation Terminating a thread before it has finished Two general approaches: –Asynchronous cancellation terminates the target thread immediately –Deferred cancellation allows the target thread to periodically check if it should be cancelled

27. ThreadsCS-3013 C-term 200827 Signal Handling Signals are used in UNIX systems to notify a process that a particular event has occurred A signal handler is used to process signals 1.Signal is generated by particular event 2.Signal is delivered to a process 3.Signal is handled Options: –Deliver the signal to the thread to which the signal applies –Deliver the signal to every thread in the process –Deliver the signal to certain threads in the process –Assign a specific thread to receive all signals for the process

28. ThreadsCS-3013 C-term 200828 Thread Pools (Implementation technique) Create a number of threads in a pool where they await work Advantages: –Usually slightly faster to service a request with an existing thread than create a new thread –Allows the number of threads in the application(s) to be bound to the size of the pool

29. ThreadsCS-3013 C-term 200829 Thread Specific Data Allows each thread to have its own copy of data Useful when you do not have control over the thread creation process (i.e., when using a thread pool)

30. ThreadsCS-3013 C-term 200830 Mutual Exclusion within Threads extern void thread_yield(); extern int TestAndSet(int &i); /* sets the value of i to 1 and returns the previous value of i. */ void enter_critical_region(int &lock) { while (TestAndSet(lock) == 1) thread_yield(); /* give up processor */ }; void leave_critical_region(int &lock) { lock = 0; };

31. ThreadsCS-3013 C-term 200831 Models for Kernel Implementation Many-to-One One-to-One Many-to-Many

32. ThreadsCS-3013 C-term 200832 Many-to-Many Model Allows many user level threads to be mapped to many kernel threads Allows the operating system to create a sufficient number of kernel threads Solaris prior to version 9 Windows NT/2000 with the ThreadFiber package

33. ThreadsCS-3013 C-term 200833 Many-to-Many Model

34. ThreadsCS-3013 C-term 200834 Two-level Model Similar to M:M, except that it allows a user thread to be bound to kernel thread Examples IRIX HP-UX Tru64 UNIX Solaris 8 and earlier

35. ThreadsCS-3013 C-term 200835 Two-level Model

36. ThreadsCS-3013 C-term 200836 Many-to-One Many user-level threads mapped to single kernel thread Examples: Solaris Green Threads GNU Portable Threads

37. ThreadsCS-3013 C-term 200837 Many-to-One Model

38. ThreadsCS-3013 C-term 200838 One-to-One Each user-level thread maps to kernel thread Examples Windows NT/XP/2000 Linux Solaris 9 and later

39. ThreadsCS-3013 C-term 200839 One-to-one Model

40. ThreadsCS-3013 C-term 200840 Modern Linux Threads Implemented in kernel “A thread is just a special kind of process.” Robert Love, Linux Kernel Development, p.23 The primary unit of scheduling and computation implemented by Linux 2.6 kernel Every thread has its own task_struct in kernel …

41. ThreadsCS-3013 C-term 200841 Modern Linux Threads (continued) Process task_struct has pointer to own memory & resources Thread task_struct has pointer to process’s memory & resources fork() and thread_create() are library functions implemented by clone() kernel call. …

42. ThreadsCS-3013 C-term 200842 Modern Linux Threads (continued) Threads are scheduled independently of each other Threads can block independently of each other Even threads of same process Threads can make their own kernel calls Kernel maintains a small kernel stack per thread During kernel call, kernel is in process context

43. ThreadsCS-3013 C-term 200843 Process Context 0x00000000 0xFFFFFFFF Virtual address space code (text) static data heap (dynamically allocated ) Kernel Code and Data PC SP User Space stack (dynamically allocated ) Kernel Space 32-bit Linux & Win XP – 3G/1G user space/kernel space

44. ThreadsCS-3013 C-term 200844 Modern Linux Threads (continued) Multiple threads can be executing in kernel at same time When in process context, kernel can sleep on behalf of its thread take pages faults on behalf of its thread move data between kernel and process or thread …

45. ThreadsCS-3013 C-term 200845 Linux Kernel Threads Kernel has its own threads No associated process context Supports concurrent activity within kernel Multiple devices operating at one time Multiple application activities at one time Multiple processors in kernel at one time A useful tool Special kernel thread packages, synchronization primitives, etc. Useful for complex OS environments

46. ThreadsCS-3013 C-term 200846 Reading Assignment Robert Love, Linux Kernel Development –Chapter 3 – “Process Management” Silbertshatz –Chapter 4 – “Threads”

47. ThreadsCS-3013 C-term 200847 Windows XP Threads Much like to Linux 2.6 threads Primitive unit of scheduling defined by kernel Threads can block independently of each other Threads can make kernel calls … Process is a higher level (non-kernel) abstraction See Silbershatz, §22.3.2.2

48. ThreadsCS-3013 C-term 200848 Threads – Summary Threads were invented to counteract the heavyweight nature of Processes in Unix, Windows, etc. Provide lightweight concurrency within a single address space Have evolved to become primitive abstraction defined by kernel Fundamental unit of scheduling in Linux, Windows, etc

49. ThreadsCS-3013 C-term 200849 Questions?